[Federal Register Volume 84, Number 53 (Tuesday, March 19, 2019)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 10224-10251]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2019-05127]
[[Page 10223]]
Vol. 84
Tuesday,
No. 53
March 19, 2019
Part III
Department of the Interior
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Fish and Wildlife Service
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50 CFR Part 18
Marine Mammals; Incidental Take During Specified Activities: Cook
Inlet, Alaska; Proposed Rule
Federal Register / Vol. 84 , No. 53 / Tuesday, March 19, 2019 /
Proposed Rules
[[Page 10224]]
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 18
[Docket No. FWS-R7-ES-2019-0012; FXES111607MRG01-190-FF07CAMM00]
RIN 1018-BD63
Marine Mammals; Incidental Take During Specified Activities: Cook
Inlet, Alaska
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Proposed rule; availability of draft environmental assessment;
revision of information collection; and request for comments.
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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, in response to a
request from Hilcorp Alaska, LLC, Harvest Alaska, LLC, and the Alaska
Gasline Development Corporation, propose to issue regulations
authorizing the nonlethal, incidental take by harassment of small
numbers of northern sea otters in State and Federal waters (Alaska and
the Outer Continental Shelf) within Cook Inlet, Alaska, as well as all
adjacent rivers, estuaries, and coastal lands. Take may result from oil
and gas exploration, development, production, and transportation
activities occurring for a period of 5 years. This proposed rule would
authorize take by harassment only; no lethal take would be authorized.
If this rule is finalized, we will issue Letters of Authorization, upon
request, for specific proposed activities in accordance with the
regulations. We intend that any final action resulting from this
proposed rule will be as accurate and as effective as possible.
Therefore, we request comments on these proposed regulations. We have
also submitted a request for revision of existing Information
Collection 1018-0070 to the Office of Management and Budget for
approval.
DATES: Comments on these proposed incidental take regulations and the
accompanying draft environmental assessment will be accepted on or
before April 3, 2019.
Information Collection Requirements: If you wish to comment on the
information collection requirements in this proposed rule, please note
that the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) is required to make a
decision concerning the collection of information contained in this
proposed rule between 30 and 60 days after publication of this proposed
rule in the Federal Register. Therefore, comments should be submitted
to OMB by April 18, 2019.
ADDRESSES:
Document availability: You may view this proposed rule, the
application package, supporting information, draft environmental
assessment, and the list of references cited herein at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket No. FWS-R7-ES-2019-0012, or these
documents may be requested as described under FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
CONTACT. You may submit comments on the proposed rule by one of the
following methods:
U.S. mail or hand-delivery: Public Comments Processing,
Attn: Docket No. FWS-R7-ES-2019-0012, Division of Policy, Performance,
and Management Programs, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 5275 Leesburg
Pike, MS: BPHC, Falls Church, VA 22041-3803.
Electronic submission: Federal eRulemaking Portal at:
http://www.regulations.gov. Follow the instructions for submitting
comments to Docket No. FWS-R7-ES-2019-0012.
We will post all comments at http://www.regulations.gov. You may
request that we withhold personal identifying information from public
review; however, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. See
Request for Public Comments for more information.
Information collection requirements: Send your comments on the
requested revision of the information collection request (ICR) to the
Desk Officer for the Department of the Interior at OMB-OIRA at 202-395-
5806 (fax) or oira_submission@omb.eop.gov (email). Please provide a
copy of your comments to the Service Information Collection Clearance
Officer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, MS: BPHC, 5275 Leesburg Pike,
Falls Church, VA 22041-3803 (mail); or info_coll@fws.gov (email).
Please include ``1018-0070'' in the subject line of your comments.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Mr. Christopher Putnam, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, MS 341, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, Alaska
99503, by email at christopher_putnam@fws.gov, or by telephone at 907-
786-3844. Persons who use a telecommunications device for the deaf
(TDD) may call the Federal Relay Service (FRS) at 1-800-877-8339, 24
hours a day, 7 days a week.
Questions regarding the Service's request to revise the Information
Collection control number 1018-0070 may be submitted to the Service
Information Collection Clearance Officer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, MS: BPHC, 5275 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, VA 22041-3803
(mail); 703-358-2503 (telephone), or info_coll@fws.gov (email). Please
include ``1018-0070'' in the subject line of your email request.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
Section 101(a)(5)(A) of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972
(16 U.S.C. 1361(a)(5)(A)) (MMPA), gives the Secretary of the Interior
(Secretary) the authority to allow the incidental, but not intentional,
taking of small numbers of marine mammals in response to requests by
U.S. citizens engaged in a specified activity in a specified region.
The Secretary has delegated authority for implementation of the MMPA to
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service). According to the MMPA,
the Service shall allow this incidental taking for a period of up to 5
years if we make findings that such taking: (1) Will affect only small
numbers of individuals of these species or stocks; (2) will have no
more than a negligible impact on these species or stocks; (3) will not
have an unmitigable adverse impact on the availability of these species
or stocks for taking for subsistence use by Alaska Natives; and (4) we
issue an incidental take regulation (ITR) setting forth: (a) The
permissible methods of taking, (b) the means of effecting the least
practicable adverse impact on the species, their habitat, and the
availability of the species for subsistence uses, and (c) the
requirements for monitoring and reporting. If final regulations
allowing such incidental taking are issued, we may then subsequently
issue a letter of authorization (LOA), upon request, to authorize
incidental take during the specified activities.
The term ``take,'' as defined by the MMPA, means to harass, hunt,
capture, or kill, or to attempt to harass, hunt, capture, or kill any
marine mammal (16 U.S.C. 1362(13)). Harassment, as defined by the MMPA,
means any act of pursuit, torment, or annoyance that (i) has the
potential to injure a marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild
(the MMPA calls this ``Level A harassment''), or (ii) has the potential
to disturb a marine mammal or marine mammal stock in the wild by
causing disruption of behavioral patterns, including, but not limited
to, migration, breathing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or sheltering
(the MMPA calls this ``Level B harassment'').
The terms ``negligible impact,'' ``small numbers,'' ``unmitigable
adverse impact,'' and ``U.S. citizens,'' among others, are defined in
title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations at 50 CFR 18.27, the
Service's regulations governing take of small numbers of marine mammals
incidental to specified
[[Page 10225]]
activities. ``Negligible impact'' is defined as an impact resulting
from the specified activity that cannot be reasonably expected to, and
is not reasonably likely to, adversely affect the species or stock
through effects on annual rates of recruitment or survival. ``Small
numbers'' is defined as a portion of a marine mammal species or stock
whose taking would have a negligible impact on that species or stock.
However, we do not rely on that definition here, as it conflates the
terms ``small numbers'' and ``negligible impact,'' which we recognize
as two separate and distinct requirements. Instead, in our small
numbers determination, we evaluate whether the number of marine mammals
likely to be taken is small relative to the size of the overall stock.
``Unmitigable adverse impact'' is defined as an impact resulting
from the specified activity (1) that is likely to reduce the
availability of the species to a level insufficient for a harvest to
meet subsistence needs by (i) causing the marine mammals to abandon or
avoid hunting areas, (ii) directly displacing subsistence users, or
(iii) placing physical barriers between the marine mammals and the
subsistence hunters; and (2) that cannot be sufficiently mitigated by
other measures to increase the availability of marine mammals to allow
subsistence needs to be met. The term ``least practicable adverse
impact'' is not defined in the MMPA or its enacting regulations. We
ensure the least practicable adverse impact by requiring mitigation
measures that are effective in reducing the impacts of the proposed
activities, but are not so restrictive as to make conducting the
activities unduly burdensome or impossible to undertake and complete.
Implementation of the ITR, if finalized, will require information
collection activities. The Service has requested that the Office of
Management and Budget revise the existing Information Collection form
1018-0070, for incidental take of marine mammals in the Beaufort and
Chukchi Seas, to include oil and gas activities in Cook Inlet.
Summary of Request
On May 3, 2018, Hilcorp Alaska, LLC (Hilcorp), Harvest Alaska, LLC
(Harvest), and the Alaska Gasline Development Corporation (AGDC),
hereinafter referred to as the ``applicant,'' petitioned the Service to
promulgate regulations pursuant to section 101(a)(5)(A) of the MMPA for
the nonlethal, unintentional taking of small numbers of northern sea
otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni; hereafter ``sea otters'' or ``otters'')
incidental to oil and gas exploration, development, production, and
transportation activities in Cook Inlet, Alaska, for a period of 5
years. On June 28, 2018, the applicant submitted an amended request
providing additional project details.
Description of the Proposed ITR
The proposed ITR, if finalized, will not authorize the proposed
activities. Rather, it will authorize the nonlethal incidental,
unintentional take of small numbers of sea otters associated with those
activities based on standards set forth in the MMPA. The proposed ITR
includes: Permissible amounts and methods of nonlethal taking; measures
to ensure the least practicable adverse impact on sea otters and their
habitat; measures to avoid and reduce impacts to subsistence uses; and
requirements for monitoring and reporting.
Description of the ITR Geographic Area
The geographic region of the proposed ITR encompasses Cook Inlet
south of a line from the Susitna River Delta to Point Possession
(approximately 61[deg]15'54'' N, 150[deg]41'07'' W, to 61[deg]02'19''
N, 150[deg]23'48'' W, WGS 1984) and north of a line from Rocky Cove to
Coal Cove (at approximately 59[deg]25'56'' N, 153[deg]44'25'' W and
59[deg]23'48'' N, 151[deg]54'28'' W WGS 1984), excluding Ursus Cove,
Iniskin Bay, Iliamna Bay, and Tuxedni Bay (see Proposed Regulation
Promulgation, Sec. 18.131 Specified geographic region where this
subpart applies). The proposed ITR area includes all Alaska State
waters and Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Federal waters within this
area as well as all adjacent rivers, estuaries, and coastal lands where
sea otters may occur, unless explicitly excluded.
The geographical extent of the proposed Cook Inlet ITR region is
approximately 1.1 million hectares (ha) (2.7 million acres (ac)). For
descriptive purposes, the specified area is organized into two marine
areas within Cook Inlet: Lower Cook Inlet (south of the Forelands to
Homer) and middle Cook Inlet (north of the Forelands to the Susitna
River and Point Possession).
Description of Specified Activities
The specified activities include work related to oil and gas
exploration, development, production, transport, and the
decommissioning of existing facilities conducted by the applicant
within a 5-year period. Hilcorp and Harvest jointly plan to conduct the
following activities: Two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D)
seismic surveys in lower Cook Inlet; production drilling from, routine
operation of, and maintenance of existing oil and gas facilities in
middle Cook Inlet; geophysical and geohazard surveys in both regions;
drilling of two to four exploration wells in OCS waters of lower Cook
Inlet and one to three wells in middle Cook Inlet; construction of a
dock facility in Chinitna Bay; and decommissioning of an existing
facility at the Drift River Terminal in middle Cook Inlet. The
following support activities will be conducted: Pipe and pile driving;
vertical seismic profiling; and use of a water jet, hydraulic grinder,
and submersible saw for pipeline and platform maintenance. AGDC plans
to install a natural gas pipeline from the west side of middle Cook
Inlet to the east side of lower Cook Inlet and to construct processing
and loading facilities on either side. Support activities for AGDC will
include pile driving, dredging, geophysical surveys, trenching, fill
placement, and anchor handling. Hilcorp, Harvest, and AGDC will use
vessels and aircraft to support the activities. Detailed descriptions
of the proposed work are provided in the applicant's petition for
incidental take regulations for oil and gas activities in Cook Inlet
(June 28, 2018), the stakeholder engagement plan (April 2018), and the
marine mammal monitoring and mitigation plan (May 2018). These
documents can be obtained from the locations described above in
ADDRESSES. Table 1 summarizes the planned activities.
Table 1--Summary of Planned Activities Included in ITR Petition
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Total anticipated
Project component name & location Geographic region Year(s) planned Seasonal timing duration (2019-2024)
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Anchor Point two-dimensional (2D) Lower Cook Inlet, 2021 or 2022............... April-October........................ 30 days.
seismic survey. Anchor Point to
Kasilof.
[[Page 10226]]
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) three- Lower Cook Inlet OCS.. 2019....................... April-June........................... 90 days.
dimensional (3D) seismic survey.
OCS geohazard survey................ Lower Cook Inlet OCS.. 2019 or 2020............... Fall 2019 or spring 2020............. 30 days.
OCS exploratory wells............... Lower Cook Inlet OCS.. 2020-2022.................. April-October........................ 40-60 days per well 2-
4 wells per year.
Iniskin Peninsula exploration and Lower Cook Inlet, west 2019-2020.................. April-October........................ 180 days.
development. side.
Platform & pipeline maintenance..... Middle Cook Inlet..... 2019-2024.................. April-October........................ 180 days.
North Cook Inlet Unit subsea well Middle Cook Inlet..... 2020....................... May.................................. 14 days.
geohazard survey.
North Cook Inlet Unit well Middle Cook Inlet..... 2020....................... May-June............................. 90 days.
abandonment activity.
Trading Bay area geohazard survey... Middle Cook Inlet..... 2020....................... May.................................. 30 days.
Trading Bay area exploratory wells.. Middle Cook Inlet..... 2020....................... May-October.......................... 120-150 days.
Drift River terminal decommissioning Lower Cook Inlet, west 2023....................... April-October........................ 120 days.
side.
Product loading facility pile Middle Cook Inlet..... 2021-2023.................. April-October........................ 162 days.
driving.
Material offloading facilities Middle Cook Inlet..... 2021-2022.................. April-October........................ 360 days.
dredging.
Material offloading facilities pile Middle Cook Inlet..... 2021-2022.................. April-October........................ 146.5 days.
driving.
Trenching, pipelay, burial.......... Middle Cook Inlet..... 2023-2024.................. April-October........................ 360 days.
Pipelay anchor handling............. Middle Cook Inlet..... 2023-2024.................. April-October........................ 18.75 days.
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Description of Marine Mammals in the Specified Area
The northern sea otter is currently the only marine mammal under
the Service's jurisdiction that normally occupies Cook Inlet, Alaska.
Sea otters in Alaska are composed of three stocks. Those in Cook Inlet
belong to either the southwest Alaska stock or the southcentral Alaska
stock, depending on whether they occur west or east of the center of
Cook Inlet, respectively. A third stock occurs in southeast Alaska.
The southwest stock of the northern sea otter is the southwest
distinct population segment (DPS), which was listed as threatened under
the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA; 16 U.S.C. 1531, et seq.) on
August 9, 2005 (70 FR 46366). On October 8, 2009 (74 FR 51988), the
Service finalized designation of 15,164 square kilometers (km\2\) (or
5,855 square miles (mi\2\)) of critical habitat for the sea otter in
southwest Alaska. Critical habitat occurs in nearshore marine waters
ranging from the mean high tide line seaward for a distance of 100
meters (m), or to a water depth of 20 m. Detailed information about the
biology and conservation status of the listed DPS can be found at
https://www.fws.gov/alaska/fisheries/mmm/seaotters/otters.htm. Stock
assessment reports for each of the three stocks are available at
https://www.fws.gov/alaska/fisheries/mmm/stock/stock.htm.
Sea otters may occur anywhere within the specified project area,
other than upland areas, but are not usually found north of about
60[deg]23'30'' N. The number of sea otters in Cook Inlet was estimated
from an aerial survey conducted by the Service in cooperation with the
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in May 2017 (Garlich-Miller et al. 2018).
The sea otter survey was conducted in all areas of Cook Inlet south of
approximately 60[deg]16'30'' N within the 40-m (131-feet (ft)) depth
contour, including Kachemak Bay in southeastern Cook Inlet and Kamishak
Bay in southwestern Cook Inlet. This survey was designed to estimate
abundance in Cook Inlet while accounting for the variable densities and
observability of sea otters in the region. Total abundance was
estimated to be 19,889 sea otters (standard error = 2,988). Within the
project area, the highest densities of sea otters were found in the
outer Kamishak Bay area, with 3.5 otters per km\2\, followed by the
eastern shore of Cook Inlet with 1.7 otters per km\2\.
Sea otters generally occur in shallow water near the shoreline.
They are most commonly observed within the 40-m (131-ft) depth contour
(USFWS 2014a,b), although they can be found in areas with deeper water.
Depth is generally correlated with distance to shore, and sea otters
typically remain within 1 to 2 kilometers (km) or 0.62 to 1.24 miles
(mi) of shore (Riedman and Estes 1990). They tend to remain closer to
shore during storms, but they venture farther out during good weather
and calm seas (Lensink 1962; Kenyon 1969).
Sea otters are non-migratory and generally do not disperse over
long distances (Garshelis and Garshelis 1984). They usually remain
within a few kilometers of their established feeding grounds (Kenyon
1981). Breeding males remain for all or part of the year in a breeding
territory covering up to 1 km (0.62 mi) of coastline. Adult females
have home ranges of approximately 8 to 16 km (5 to 10 mi), which may
include one or more male territories. Juveniles move greater distances
between resting and foraging areas (Lensink 1962; Kenyon 1969; Riedman
and Estes 1990; Tinker and Estes 1996).
Although sea otters generally remain local to an area, they may
shift home ranges seasonally, and are capable of long-distance travel.
Otters in Alaska have shown daily movement distances greater than 3 km
(1.9 mi) at speeds up to 5.5 km per hour (3.4 mi per hour) (Garshelis
and Garshelis 1984). In eastern Cook Inlet, large numbers of sea otters
have been observed riding the incoming tide northward and returning on
the outgoing tide, especially in August. They are presumably feeding
along the eastern shoreline of Cook Inlet during the slack tides when
the weather is good and remaining in Kachemak Bay during periods of
less favorable weather (Gill et al. 2009; BlueCrest 2013). In western
Cook Inlet, otters appear to move in and out of Kamishak Bay in
response to seasonal changes in the presence of sea ice (Larned 2006).
Potential Effects of the Activities
Effects of Noise
The operations outlined in the Description of Specified Activities
and described in the applicant's petition have the potential to result
in take of sea otters by harassment from acoustic
[[Page 10227]]
disturbance. Potential effects are likely to depend on the distance of
the otter from the sound source and the level of sound received by the
otter. Project components most likely to cause acoustic disturbance are
shown in Table 2. Temporary disturbance or localized displacement
reactions are the most likely to occur. With implementation of the
proposed mitigation and monitoring measures described in Sec. 18.137
Mitigation, Sec. 18.138 Monitoring, and Sec. 18.139 Reporting
requirements, no lethal take is anticipated, and take by harassment
(Level A and Level B) is expected to be minimized to the greatest
extent practicable.
Table 2--Project Components Proposed by Hilcorp Alaska, LLC, Harvest
Alaska, LLC, and the Alaska Gasline Development Corporation Capable of
Causing Incidental Take by Harassment of Northern Sea Otters Due to
Acoustic Exposure in Cook Inlet
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Project component name &
location Anticipated noise sources
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Anchor Point two-dimensional Marine: 1 source vessel with airgun, 1
(2D) seismic survey. node vessel; Onshore/Intertidal: Shot
holes, tracked vehicles, helicopters.
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) 2 source vessels with airguns, 2 support
three-dimensional (3D) vessels, 1 mitigation vessel
seismic survey. (potentially).
OCS geohazard survey......... 1 vessel with echosounders and/or
subbottom profilers.
OCS exploratory wells........ 1 jack-up rig, drive pipe installation, 2-
3 tugs for towing rig, support vessels,
helicopters.
Iniskin Peninsula exploration Construction of causeway, dredging,
and development. vessels.
Platform & pipeline Vessels, water jets, hydraulic grinders,
maintenance. helicopters, and/or sub-bottom
profilers.
North Cook Inlet Unit subsea 1 vessel with echosounders and/or
well geohazard survey. subbottom profilers.
North Cook Inlet Unit well 1 jack-up rig, tugs towing rig, support
abandonment activity. vessel, helicopters.
Trading Bay area geohazard 1 vessel with echosounders and/or
survey. subbottom profilers.
Trading Bay area exploratory 1 jack-up rig, drive pipe installation,
wells. tugs for towing rig, support vessels,
helicopters.
Drift River terminal Vessels.
decommissioning.
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Noise Levels
Whether a specific noise source will affect a sea otter depends on
several factors, including the distance between the animal and the
sound source, the sound intensity, background noise levels, the noise
frequency, the noise duration, and whether the noise is pulsed or
continuous. The actual noise level perceived by individual sea otters
will depend on distance to the source, whether the animal is above or
below water, atmospheric and environmental conditions, as well as
aspects of the noise emitted.
Noise levels herein are given in decibels referenced to 1 [micro]Pa
(dB re: 1 [mu]Pa) for underwater sound. All dB levels are
dBRMS unless otherwise noted; dBRMS refers to the
root-mean-squared dB level, the square root of the average of the
squared sound pressure level (SPL) typically measured over 1 second.
Other important metrics include the sound exposure level (SEL;
represented as dB re: 1 [mu]Pa\2\-s), which represents the total energy
contained within a pulse and considers both intensity and duration of
exposure, and the peak sound pressure (also referred to as the zero-to-
peak sound pressure or 0-p). Peak sound pressure is the maximum
instantaneous sound pressure measurable in the water at a specified
distance from the source and is represented in the same units as the
RMS sound pressure. See Richardson et al. (1995), G[ouml]tz et al.
(2009), Hopp et al. (2012), Navy (2014), or similar resources for
descriptions of acoustical terms and measurement units in the context
of ecological impact assessment. A summary of the sounds produced by
the various components of the proposed activities is provided in Tables
3 and 4.
Table 3--Summary of Acoustic Source Levels for Proposed Activities
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Sound pressure
Applicant Activity levels (dB re 1 Frequency Reference
[mu]Pa)
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Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska, AGDC.... General vessel 145-175 dB rms at 10-1,500 Hz....... Richardson et al.
operations. 1 m. 1995; Blackwell
and Greene 2003;
Ireland and
Bisson 2016.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska, AGDC.... General aircraft 100-124 dB rms at <500 Hz........... Richardson et al.
operations. 1 m. 1995.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... 2D seismic survey 217 dB peak at 100 <300 Hz........... Austin and Warner
(2,400 cui m; 185 dB SEL at 2012; 81 FR 47240
airgun). 100 m; 197 dB rms (July 20, 2016).
at 100 m.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... 3D seismic survey 217 dB peak at 100 <300 Hz........... Austin and Warner
(2,400 cui m; 185 dB SEL at 2012; 81 FR 47240
airgun). 100 m; 197 dB rms (July 20, 2016).
at 100 m.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Geohazard surveys. 210-220 dB rms at Echosounders & Manufacturer
1 m. side scan sonar: specifications.
>200 kHz. High-
resolution sub-
bottom profiler:
2-24 kHz. Low-
resolution sub-
bottom profiler:
1-4 kHz.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Exploratory 137 dB rms at 1 m. <200 Hz........... Marine Acoustics
drilling rig. Inc. 2011.
[[Page 10228]]
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Tugs under load 191 dB rms at 1 m. <500 Hz........... LGL/JASCO/
towing rig. Greeneridge 2014.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Drive pipe 190 dB rms at 55 m <500 Hz........... Illingworth &
installation. Rodkin 2014.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Vertical seismic 227 dB rms at 1 m. <500 Hz........... Illingworth &
profiling. Rodkin 2014.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Sub-bottom 212 dB rms at 1 m. 1-24 kHz.......... Manufacturer
profiling. specifications.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Rock laying for 136-141 dB rms at <500 Hz........... Nedwell and
Iniskin Peninsula 12-19 m. Edwards 2004; URS
causeway. 2007.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Vibratory sheet 175 dB peak at 10 <100-2,500 Hz..... Illingworth &
pile driving for m; 160 dB SEL at Rodkin 2007.
Iniskin Peninsula 10 m; 160 dB rms
causeway. at 10 m.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Offshore 97-111 dB rms at <500 Hz........... Blackwell and
production 0.3-19 km. Greene 2003.
platforms.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Water jet......... 176 dB rms at 1 m. 500 Hz-2 kHz...... Austin 2017.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Hydraulic grinder. 159 dB at 1 m..... <1 kHz............ Stanley 2014.
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.......... Pingers........... 192 dB rms at 1 m. 4-14 kHz.......... Manufacturer
specifications.
AGDC............................ Dredging: 107-142.6 dB rms <2.5 kHz, Dickerson et al.
Including at 10 m. broadband. 2001, URS 2007.
Clamshell dredge,
Winching in/out,
Dumping into
barge, Empty
barge at
placement site.
AGDC............................ Underwater 145 dB @10 m...... <2.5 kHz, Greene et al.
trenching with broadband. 2008.
backhoe in
shallow water.
AGDC............................ Anchor handling... 188 dB............ <2.5 kHz, LGL/JASCO/
broadband. Greeneridge 2014.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 4--Summary of Acoustical Sources of Pile-Driving Activities for AGDC From Illingworth & Rodkin
[2007]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sound pressure level (dB re
Representative pile type and 1 [mu]Pa)
size Hammer type ------------------------------ Project pile type and size
Peak RMS SEL
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
24-inch AZ sheet pile........ Impact.......... 205 190 180 Sheet pile.
24-inch AZ sheet pile........ Vibratory....... 175 160 160 Sheet pile.
24-inch steel pipe pile...... Impact.......... 207 194 178 18- and 24-inch piles.
60-inch steel shell pile..... Impact.......... 210 195 185 48- and 60-inch piles.
72-inch steel pipe piles..... Vibratory....... 183 170 170 All size piles
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sea Otter Hearing
Sound frequencies produced by the applicant's survey and
construction activities will fall within the hearing range of sea
otters and therefore will be audible to animals. Controlled sound
exposure trials on southern sea otters (E. l. nereis) indicate that
otters can hear frequencies between 125 hertz (Hz) and 38 kilohertz
(kHz) with best sensitivity between 1.2 and 27 kHz (Ghoul and Reichmuth
2014). Aerial and underwater audiograms for a captive adult male
southern sea otter in the presence of ambient noise suggest the sea
otter's hearing was less sensitive to high-frequency (greater than 22
kHz) and low-frequency (less than 2 kHz) sounds than terrestrial
mustelids but similar to that of a sea lion. Dominant frequencies of
southern sea otter vocalizations are between 3 and 8 kHz, with some
energy extending above 60 kHz (McShane et al. 1995; Ghoul and Reichmuth
2012a).
Exposure to high levels of sound may cause changes in behavior,
masking of communications, temporary changes in hearing sensitivity,
discomfort, and physical or auditory injury. Species-specific criteria
for preventing harmful exposures to sound have not been identified for
sea otters. Thresholds have been developed for other marine mammals,
above which exposure is likely to cause behavioral disturbance and
injuries (Southall et al. 2007; Finneran and Jenkins 2012; NMFS 2018a).
Because sea otter hearing abilities and sensitivities have not been
fully evaluated, we relied on the closest related proxy, California sea
lions (Zalophus californianus), to evaluate the potential effects of
noise exposure.
The California sea lion, an otariid pinniped, has a frequency range
of hearing most similar to that of the southern sea otter (Ghoul and
Reichmuth 2014) and provides the closest related proxy for which data
are available. Sea otters and pinnipeds share a common mammalian aural
physiology (Echteler et al. 1994; Solntseva 2007). Both are adapted to
amphibious hearing, and both use sound in the same way (primarily for
communication rather than feeding).
Exposure Criteria
Noise exposure criteria have been established by the National
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) for identifying underwater noise levels
capable of causing Level A harassment (injury) of
[[Page 10229]]
marine mammals, including otariid pinnipeds (NMFS 2018a). Sea otter-
specific criteria have not been determined; however, because of their
biological similarities, we assume that noise criteria developed by
NMFS for injury for otariid pinnipeds will be a suitable surrogate for
sea otter impacts as well. Those criteria are based on estimated levels
of sound exposure capable of causing a permanent shift in sensitivity
of hearing (e.g., a permanent threshold shift (PTS) (NMFS 2018a)). PTS
occurs when noise exposure causes hairs within the inner ear system to
die. This can occur due to moderate durations of very loud noise level
exposure, or long-term continuous exposure of moderate noise levels.
NMFS's (2018a) criteria for sound exposure incorporate two metrics
of exposure: The peak level of instantaneous exposure likely to cause
PTS, and the cumulative exposure level during a 24-hour period
(SELcum). They also include weighting adjustments for the sensitivity
of different species to varying frequencies. PTS-based injury criteria
were developed from theoretical extrapolation of observations of
temporary threshold shifts (TTS) detected in lab settings during sound
exposure trials. Studies were summarized by Finneran (2015). For
pinnipeds, PTS is predicted to occur at 232 dB peak or 203 dB SELcum
for impulsive sound, or 219 dB SELcum for non-impulsive (continuous)
sound.
NMFS criteria for Level A represents the best available information
for predicting injury from exposure to underwater sound among
pinnipeds, and in the absence of data specific to otters, we assume
these criteria also represent appropriate exposure limits for Level A
take of sea otters.
NMFS (2018a) criteria do not identify thresholds for avoidance of
Level B take. For pinnipeds, NMFS has adopted a 160-dB threshold for
Level B take from exposure to impulse noise and a 120-dB threshold for
continuous noise (NMFS 1998; HESS 1999; NMFS undated). These thresholds
were developed from observations of mysticete (baleen) whales
responding to airgun operations (e.g., Malme et al. 1983a, 1983b;
Richardson et al. 1986, 1995) and from equating Level B take with noise
levels capable of causing TTS in lab settings.
We have evaluated these thresholds and determined that the Level B
threshold of 120 dB for non-impulsive noise is not applicable to sea
otters. The 120-dB threshold is based on studies conducted by Malme et
al. in the 1980s, during which gray whales were exposed to experimental
playbacks of industrial noise. Based on the behavioral responses of
gray whales to the playback of drillship noise during a study at St.
Lawrence Island, Alaska, Malme et al. (1988) concluded that ``exposure
to levels of 120 dB or more would probably cause avoidance of the area
by more than one-half of the gray whales.'' Sea otters do not usually
occur at St. Lawrence Island, Alaska, but similar playback studies
conducted off the coast of California (Malme 1983a, 1984) included a
southern sea otter monitoring component (Riedman 1983, 1984). The 1983
and 1984 studies detected probabilities of avoidance in gray whales
comparable to those reported in Malme et al. (1988), but there was no
evidence of disturbance reactions or avoidance in southern sea otters.
The applicable Level B thresholds mays also depend on the levels of
background noise present and the frequencies generated. NMFS
acknowledges that the 120-dB threshold may not be applicable if
background noise levels are high (NMFS undated), which is the case in
Cook Inlet, where ambient levels can often exceed 120 dB (Blackwell and
Greene 2003).
Thresholds developed for one species may not be appropriate for
another due to differences in their frequency sensitivities. Continuous
sound sources associated with the proposed activities include vibratory
pile driving, vessel activities, use of a hydraulic grinder or water
jet, dredging, trenching, and anchor handling. These are expected to
produce low-frequency broadband noise. For example, vibratory pile
driving will generate sound with frequencies that are predominantly
lower than 2 kHz, and with the greatest pressure spectral densities at
frequencies below 1 kHz (Dahl et al. 2015). Sea otters are capable of
hearing down to 125 Hz, but have relatively poor hearing sensitivity at
frequencies below 2 kHz (Ghoul and Reichmuth 2014). As a result, much
of the noise generated by vibratory pile driving and other broadband
noise is expected to be inaudible or marginally audible to sea otters.
During a project that occurred in Elkhorn Slough, California, sound
levels ranging from approximately 135 to 165 dB during vibratory pile
driving elicited no clear pattern of disturbance or avoidance among
southern sea otters in areas exposed to these levels of underwater
sound (ESNERR 2011). In contrast, gray whales are in the group of
marine mammals believed to be most sensitive to low frequency sounds,
with an estimated audible frequency range of approximately 10 Hz to 30
kHz (Finneran 2016). Given the different range of frequencies to which
sea otters and gray whales are sensitive, the NMFS 120-dB threshold
based on gray whale behavior is not useful for predicting sea otter
behavioral responses to low frequency sound.
The NMFS Level B thresholds do not account for different behaviors
among taxa. Harbor porpoise, beaked whales, and mysticete whales appear
significantly more sensitive to noise exposure than other marine
mammals (e.g., Richardson et al. 1999. Tyack et al. 2011; Southall et
al. 2007). Although no specific thresholds have been developed for sea
otters, several alternative behavioral response thresholds for have
been developed for pinnipeds.
Southall et al. (2007) assessed behavioral response studies, found
considerable variability among pinnipeds, and determined that exposures
between approximately 90 to 140 dB generally do not appear to induce
strong behavioral responses in pinnipeds in water, but behavioral
effects, including avoidance, become more likely in the range between
120 to 160 dB, and most marine mammals showed some, albeit variable,
responses to sound between 140 to 180 dB. Wood et al. (2012) later
adapted the approach identified in Southall et al. (2007) to develop a
probabilistic scale for marine mammal taxa at which 10 percent, 50
percent, and 90 percent of individuals exposed are assumed to produce a
behavioral response. For many marine mammals, including pinnipeds,
these response rates were set at sound pressure levels of 140, 160, and
180 dB respectively.
Thresholds based on TTS have been used as a proxy for Level B
harassment (i.e., 70 FR 1871, January 11, 2005; 71 FR 3260, January 20,
2006; and 73 FR 41318, July 18, 2008). Southall et al. (2007) derived
TTS thresholds for pinnipeds based on 212 dB peak and 171-dB SELcum.
Kastak et al. (2005) found exposures resulting in TTS in pinnipeds
ranging from 152 to 174 dB (183-206 dB SEL). Kastak et al. (2008)
demonstrated a persistent TTS, if not a PTS, after 60 seconds of 184 dB
SEL. Kastelein et al. (2012) found small but statistically significant
TTSs at approximately 170 dB SEL (136 dB, 60 min) and 178 dB SEL (148
dB, 15 min). Finneran (2015) summarized these and others studies, which
NMFS (2018a) has used to develop TTS threshold for pinnipeds of 199 dB
SELcum.
Based on the lack of a disturbance response or any other reaction
by sea otters to the 1980s playback studies and the absence of a clear
pattern of disturbance or avoidance behaviors attributable to
underwater sound levels up to about 160 dB resulting from
[[Page 10230]]
vibratory pile driving and other sources of similar low-frequency
broadband noise, we assume 120 is not an appropriate behavioral
response threshold for sea otters exposed to continuous underwater
noise. We assume, based on the work of NMFS (2018a), Southall et al.
(2007), and others described here, that either a 160-dB threshold or a
199-dB SELcum threshold is likely to be the best predictor of Level B
take of sea otters for continuous noise exposure, using southern sea
otters and pinnipeds as a proxy, and based on the best available data.
We compared a 199-dB SELcum threshold for TTS from NMFS (2018a)
with a 160-dB behavioral response threshold (NMFS undated) to determine
the most appropriate criteria for identifying Level B take from the
proposed activities. We first evaluated the probability of reaching TTS
at 199 dB SELcum given the projects' predicted sound levels using
calculations in user spreadsheets developed by NMFS (2018b; available
at http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/acoustics/guidelines.htm). We used the
same assumptions presented by Hilcorp to estimate sound production for
the proposed 3D seismic surveys. The source levels were estimated at
217 dB peak, 185 dB SEL, and 197 dB rms at a distance of 100 m. A sound
source verification (SSV) conducted for similar seismic work in Cook
Inlet using a 2,400-cui source array indicated a 160-dB zone extended
7.33 km (4.5 mi) from the source (Austin and Warner 2013; 81 FR 47240,
July 20, 2016). We assumed the maximum sound pressure level of 217.97
dB at 1 m, the default 1-kHz frequency weighting adjustment for
seismic, and a transmission loss coefficient of 15 for shallow water.
The model output predicts that pinnipeds within 133 m (436 ft) of the
sound source could experience TTS within 60 seconds. Those remaining
within 882 m (0.54 mi) of the sound source for 17 minutes could
experience TTS, as could those within 1.2 km (0.75 mi) for 28 minutes,
1.7 km (1.1 mi) for 43 minutes, and those remaining within 2.3 km (1.4
mi) for 72 minutes or longer.
For Hilcorp's 3D seismic work, a 160-dB threshold predicts an otter
would experience Level B take at 7.3 km (4.5 mi) from the source
regardless of duration of exposure. A 199-dB SELcum threshold predicts
sea otters at 7.3 km (4.5 mi) from the source would experience TTS
after 6.7 hours of exposure. For an otter within 7.3 km (4.5 mi) of a
sound source, if duration of exposure is less than 6.7 hours, the 160-
dB threshold will overestimate exposure compared to the 199-dB SELcum
threshold. Beyond 7.3 km (4.5 mi), the 160-dB threshold will
underestimate take for otters exposed to noise for periods longer than
6.7 hours. The normal work period for Hilcorp's 3D seismic will be 2.5-
hour intervals based on the slack tide periods. This suggests that the
160-dB threshold overestimates otters exposed to a single interval of
work. However, multiple intervals can be conducted in a day, and if
both the work and the otters were to remain stationary, otters could be
exposed for a longer overall duration, causing the 160-dB threshold to
underestimate take.
In reality, neither the otters, nor the seismic vessels are
stationary. Sea otters can swim at average speeds of 5.5 km/h (3.4 mi/
hr) (Garshelis and Garshelis 1984) and maximum speeds up to 9 km/h (5.6
mi/hr) (UMMZ 2007). At those rates of travel, a sea otter could easily
depart an ensonification zone prior to cumulative TTS exposure. For
instance, an otter would experience cumulative TTS after remaining 882
m (0.54 mi) from a sound source for 17 minutes; alternately, in that
time, the otter could swim 1.6 km (1 mi) away at a normal pace. If all
otters did this, a 199-dB SELcum threshold for TTS would overestimate
take. However, an otter may not be willing to travel beyond the
boundaries of its normal range. Annual home range sizes of adult sea
otters are relatively small, with males ranging from 10.5-28.5 km\2\
(4-11 mi\2\) and adult females from a few to 62 km\2\ (24 mi\2\);
juveniles may move greater distances between resting and foraging areas
(Lensink 1962; Kenyon 1969; Garshelis and Garshelis 1984; Ralls et al.
1988; Jameson 1989; Riedman and Estes 1990; Tinker and Estes 1996).
Territorial adult males usually remain within a few kilometers of their
established feeding grounds (Kenyon 1981). Based on these patterns,
adult females and subadults are expected to be able to effectively
avoid TTS due to cumulative exposure from up to the full four-interval
set of seismic surveys in a 24-hour period, whereas territorial males
might not. For the territorial males, a 160-dB threshold could
underestimate take.
In conclusion, a 199-dB SELcum exposure threshold is likely to be
more accurate than a 160-dB single level threshold when the behaviors
of individual otters can be closely monitored. However, a 160-dB
threshold will generate similar estimates of take from Hilcorp's 3D
seismic surveys and will overestimate take for quieter sound sources.
Given the lack of TTS data specific to otters, the 160-dB threshold
provides a measure of insurance against underestimation of the possible
risks to otters, and provides greater practicability for application of
mitigation and monitoring.
Exposure to impulsive sound levels greater than 160 dB can elicit
behavioral changes in marine mammals that might be detrimental to
health and long-term survival where it disrupts normal behavioral
routines. Thus, using information available for other marine mammals as
a surrogate, and taking into consideration the best available
information about sea otters, the Service has set the received sound
level under water of 160 dB as a threshold for Level B take by
disturbance for sea otters for this proposed ITR (based on Ghoul and
Reichmuth 2012a,b; McShane et al. 1995; NOAA 2005; Riedman 1983;
Richardson et al. 1995, and others). Exposure to unmitigated in-water
noise levels between 125 Hz and 32 kHz that are greater than 160 dB
will be considered by the Service as Level B take; thresholds for
potentially injurious Level A take will be 232 dB peak or 203 dB SEL
for impulsive sounds and 219 dB SEL for continuous sounds (Table 5).
Table 5--Summary of Northern Sea Otter Acoustic Thresholds for Underwater Sound in the Frequency Range 125 Hz-32
kHz
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Injury (Level A) threshold Disturbance (Level B) threshold
Marine mammals ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Impulsive \1\ Non-impulsive \1\ All
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sea otters....................... 232 dB peak; 203 dB 219 dB SELcum...... 160 dB rms.
XXXXX.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Based on NMFS acoustic criteria for otariid pinnipeds (NMFS 2018a).
[[Page 10231]]
Noise-Generating Activities
The components of the proposed activities that have the greatest
likelihood of exposing sea otters to underwater noise capable of
causing Level A or Level B take include geophysical surveys, pile
driving, drilling activities, and anchor handling associated with
pipeline construction. Vessel and aircraft operations also have the
ability to expose otters to sound and human activities that may cause
disturbance.
Geophysical Surveys--Airgun arrays used in seismic surveys to
locate potential hydrocarbon-bearing geologic formations typically
produce most noise energy in the 10- to 120-Hertz (Hz) range, with some
energy extending to 1,000 Hz (Richardson et al. 1995). There is no
empirical evidence that exposure to pulses of airgun sound is likely to
cause serious injury or death in any marine mammal, even with large
arrays of airguns (Southall et al. 2007). However, with source levels
of up to 260 dB, the potential of seismic airgun arrays to acoustically
injure marine mammals at close proximity must be considered.
In addition to seismic surveys for hydrocarbon-bearing formations,
geophysical surveys are conducted to produce imagery of sea-floor
surfaces and substrates on a finer spatial scale. These images aid in
the selection of sites for structures such as docks or submerged
pipelines and the identification of obstacles or hazards within the
substrate that may interfere with exploratory drilling. Sounds produced
by the instruments used for these surveys vary in terms of frequency
bands, source levels, repetition rates, and beam widths. Peak-to-peak
operating frequencies range from roughly 300 Hz to several hundred kHz
and source levels ranging from 170 to 240 dB (Crocker and Fratantonio
2016).
Pipe/Pile Driving--During the course of pile driving, a portion of
the kinetic energy from the hammer is lost to the water column in the
form of sound. Levels of underwater sounds produced during pile driving
are dependent upon the size and composition of the pile, the substrate
into which the pile is driven, bathymetry, physical and chemical
characteristics of the surrounding waters, and pile installation method
(Illingworth and Rodkin 2007, 2014; Denes et al. 2016).
Both impact and vibratory pile installation produce underwater
sounds of frequencies predominantly lower than 2.5 kHz, with the
highest intensity of pressure spectral density at or below 1 kHz (Denes
et al. 2016; Dahl et al. 2015; Illingworth and Rodkin 2007). Source
levels of underwater sounds produced by impact pile driving tend to be
higher than for vibratory pile driving; however, both methods of
installation can generate underwater sound levels capable of causing
behavioral disturbance or hearing threshold shift in marine mammals.
Drilling Operations--For drilling operations, two project
components have the potential to disturb sea otters: Installing the
drive pipe at each well prior to drilling; and vertical seismic
profiling (VSP) operations that may occur at the completion of each
well drilling. The types of underwater sounds generated by these
activities are discussed in ``Pile Driving'' and ``Geophysical
Surveys,'' respectively.
Lattice-legged jack-up drill rigs are relatively quiet because the
lattice legs limit transfer of noise generated from the drilling table
to the water (Richardson et al. 1995, Spence et al. 2007). Further, the
drilling platform and other noise-generating equipment is located above
the ocean surface so there is very little surface contact with the
water compared to drill ships and semi-submersible drill rigs. Hydro-
acoustic measurements of the Spartan 151 resulted in a source level of
137 dB (Marine Acoustics, Inc. 2011). The survey results showed that
this noise was largely associated with the diesel engines used as power
generators. Generators used on the Endeavour, another lattice-legged
jack-up rig operating in Cook Inlet, are mounted on pedestals
specifically to reduce noise transfer through the infrastructure, and
they are enclosed in an insulated engine room. The results from a sound
source verification done by Illingworth and Rodkin (2014) indicated
that noise generated from drilling and generators were below ambient
noise, 128 dB at distances of 30 to 70 m. Thus, neither drilling itself
nor the running of pumps and generators on the drill rig is expected to
produce underwater noise levels that will affect sea otters.
Aircraft Overflights--Richardson et al. (1995) presented analyses
of recordings of sounds produced by a Bell 212 helicopter. The
estimated source levels for two of the flights were 149 and 151 dB re 1
[mu]Pa-m, and underwater received levels were 109 dB when the aircraft
flew at an altitude of 152 m (500 ft) and 107 dB at a flight altitude
of 305 m (1,000 ft). Received sound levels in air at the water surface
would be 81 and 75 dB re 20 [mu]Pa for flights at 152 and 305 m (500
and 1,000 ft), respectively.
Rig Towing and Anchor Handling--The characteristics of sounds
produced by vessels are a product of several variables pertaining to
the specifications of the vessel, including the number and type of
engines, propeller shape and size, and the mechanical condition of
these components. Operational status of the vessel, such as towing
heavy loads or using bow thrusters, can significantly affect the levels
of sounds emitted by the same vessel at different times (Richardson et
al. 1995). Two components of the proposed activities, towing of
Hilcorp's drilling rig and the manipulation of anchors for the laying
of the AGDC pipeline, will involve vessel operations that are likely to
be substantially louder than normal transit.
Data from recent exploratory drilling activities in the Chukchi and
Beaufort seas indicate that anchor handling can intermittently produce
sounds likely greater than 190 dB; the source level of the anchor-
handling vessel was estimated to be 188 dB (LGL/JASCO/Greeneridge
2014). The same study reported measurements of two configurations of
tugs towing drilling rigs, the average of which was 190.5 dB.
Airborne Sounds
The NMFS (2018a) guidance neither addresses thresholds for
preventing injury or disturbance from airborne noise, nor provides
thresholds for avoidance of Level B take. However, a review of
literature by Southall et al. (2007) suggested thresholds for PTS and
TTS for sea lions exposed to non-pulsed airborne noise of 172.5 and 159
dB re (20 [mu]Pa)\2\-s SEL. Behavioral responses to overflights are
addressed in Responses to Activities.
Conveyance of underwater noise into the air is of little concern
since the effects of pressure release and interference at the water's
surface scatter and reflect sound (similar to a Lloyd's mirror) which
reduces underwater noise transmission into the air. For activities that
create both in-air and underwater sounds, such as pile driving, we will
estimate take based on parameters for underwater noise transmission.
Because sound energy travels more efficiently through water than
through air, this estimation will also account for exposures to animals
at the surface.
Aircraft are the most significant source of airborne sounds.
Proposed flights are to be conducted at an altitude of 305 m (1,000 ft)
except during takeoff and landing. At the surface of the water, the
received sound level from a helicopter flown at this altitude is
roughly 75 dB re 20 [mu]Pa (see ``Noise-Generating Activities''), and
so threshold shift is extremely unlikely.
Loud screams are used to communicate between pups and
[[Page 10232]]
mothers at the surface (McShane et al. 1995), but sea otters do not
appear to communicate vocally under water, and they do not use sound to
detect prey. Although masking of these crucial airborne calls is
possible, the duration of sound from aircraft will be brief and
therefore unlikely to result in separation of females from pups.
Effects on Habitat and Prey
Habitat areas of significance for sea otters exist in the project
area. Sea otter critical habitat was designated under the ESA (74 FR
51988, October 8, 2009). In Cook Inlet, critical habitat occurs along
the western shoreline south of approximately Redoubt Point. It extends
from mean high tide line out to 100 m (328.1 ft) from shore or to the
20-m (65.6-ft) depth contour. Physical and biological features of
critical habitat essential to the conservation of sea otters include
the benthic invertebrates (urchins, mussels, clams, etc.) eaten by
otters and the shallow rocky areas and kelp beds that provide cover
from predators. Other important habitat in the applicant's project area
includes outer Kamishak Bay between Augustine Island and Iniskin Bay
within the 40-m (131-ft) depth contour where high densities of otters
have been detected.
The applicant's proposed activities include drilling, dredging,
trenching, pile driving, and dock construction. These activities would
change the physical characteristics of localized areas of habitat.
Construction would result in seafloor disturbance and temporary
increases in water column turbidity. Docks can increase seafloor
shading, which affects the amount of light penetration on the seafloor.
Water quality in may be affected by drilling-related discharges within
limits permitted by the State of Alaska.
Sampling efforts at borrow and disposal areas before and after
dredging activity have produced mixed results in terms of whether
dredging causes significant changes to the productivity and diversity
of infaunal benthic and epibenthic invertebrate communities (Fraser et
al., 2017; Angonesi et al. 2006). The areas where dredging activities
are proposed include a materials loading facility at Nikiski and along
the planned AGDC pipeline route between Nikiski and Beluga; the
proposed disposal area is just west of Nikiski. This is beyond the
northern limit of sea otter distribution in Cook Inlet, so effects of
dredging upon invertebrate communities would not affect availability of
prey to sea otters.
In addition to the disturbances outlined above to sea otters or
their designated critical habitat, survey and construction activities
could affect sea otter habitat in the form of impacts to prey species.
The primary prey species for sea otters are sea urchins, abalone,
clams, mussels, crabs, and squid (Tinker and Estes 1999). When
preferential prey are scarce, otters will also eat kelp, crabs, clams,
turban snails, octopuses, barnacles, sea stars, scallops, rock oysters,
fat innkeeper worms, and chitons (Riedman and Estes 1990).
Limited research has been conducted on the effects of noise on
invertebrates (Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012). Christian et al.
(2003) concluded that there were no obvious effects from seismic
signals on crab behavior and no significant effects on the health of
adult crabs. Pearson et al. (1994) had previously found no effects of
seismic signals upon crab larvae for exposures as close as 1 m (3.3 ft)
from the array, or for mean sound pressure as high as 231 dB. Pearson
et al. (1994) did not observe any statistically significant effects on
Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) larvae shot as close as 1 m from a
231-dB source. Further, Christian et al. (2004) did not find any
behavioral or significant health impacts to snow crabs (Chionoecetes
opilio) exposed to seismic noise. The only effect noted was a reduction
in the speed of egg development after exposure to noise levels (221 dB
at 2 m), far higher than what bottom-dwelling crabs could be exposed to
by seismic guns. Invertebrates such as mussels, clams, and crabs do not
have auditory systems or swim bladders that could be affected by sound
pressure. Squid and other cephalopod species have complex statocysts
(Nixon and Young 2003) that resemble the otolith organs of fish that
may allow them to detect sounds (Budelmann 1992).
Some species of invertebrates have shown temporary behavioral
changes in the presence of increased sound levels. Fewtrell and
McCauley (2012) reported increases in alarm behaviors in wild-caught
captive reef squid (Sepioteuthis australis) exposed to seismic airguns
at noise levels between 156-161 dB. Additionally, captive crustaceans
have changed behaviors when exposed to simulated sounds consistent with
those emitted during seismic exploration and pile-driving activities
(Tidau and Briffa 2016).
In general, there is little knowledge regarding hearing in marine
invertebrates or how invertebrates are affected by high noise levels
(Hawkins and Popper 2012). A review of literature pertaining to effects
of seismic surveys on fish and invertebrates (Carroll et al. 2016)
noted that there is a wide disparity between results obtained in field
and laboratory settings. Some of the reviewed studies indicate the
potential for noise-induced physiological and behavioral changes in a
number of invertebrates. However, changes were observed only when
animals were housed in enclosed tanks and many were exposed to
prolonged bouts of continuous, pure tones. We would not expect similar
results in open marine conditions. Given the short-term duration of
sounds produced by each component of the proposed work, it is unlikely
that noises generated by survey and construction activities will have
any lasting effect on sea otter prey.
Potential Impacts From an Oil Spill or Unpermitted Discharge
Sea otters could be affected by accidentally spilled diesel fuel
from a vessel associated with proposed activities or from a spill or
leak from a pipeline or well. An oil spill or unpermitted discharge is
an illegal act, and ITRs do not authorize take of sea otters caused by
illegal or unpermitted activities. Typical spills that may result from
the proposed activities are relatively small in scale and are not
likely to affect otters. A large spill could affect large numbers of
otters, but these events are rare.
Information on oil spills throughout the range of the listed sea
otter from 2006 to 2010 indicates that an average of four spills of
crude oil occurred each year in the marine environment (ADEC 2014).
Crude oil spills ranged in size from less than 4 to 760 liters (L) or 1
to 200 gallons (gal), with a mean size of about 41.8 L (11 gal). Spills
of non-crude oil averaged 62 per year, ranging in size from less than 4
to 24,320 L (1 to 6,400 gal). The majority of the non-crude oil spills
were small, with a mean size of about 380 L (100 gal) and a median size
of 4 L (1 gal). These events will have only localized impacts to
habitat and are unlikely to affect sea otters.
Effects of a larger spill would depend on the size and location of
a spill and meteorological conditions at the time. Spilled fuel would
rapidly be spread by waves, currents, the prevailing winds. Lighter,
volatile components of the fuel would evaporate to the atmosphere
almost completely in a few days. Rougher seas, high wind speeds, and
high temperatures also tend to increase the rate of evaporation and the
proportion of fuel lost by this process (Scholz et al. 1999). Heavier
components of fuel may drift, wash ashore, or settle into the water
column and the seabed.
If a large oil spill were to occur, the most likely impact upon sea
otters
[[Page 10233]]
would be mortality due to exposure to and ingestion of spilled oil.
Contamination of sea otter habitat, their invertebrate prey, and prey
habitat would most likely result in a range of impacts ranging from
sublethal to lethal, depending on a wide variety of factors.
Sea otters are critically dependent upon their fur for
thermoregulation, and oiling severely reduces fur thermoregulatory
performance. Thermal conductance (an index of insulative quality) of
marine mammal fur was significantly decreased after oiling, with sea
otter pup fur being the most affected (Kooyman et al. 1976). A live
otter would experience thermal stress, including decreased body
temperature and significantly increased metabolic rate, as well as
increased energy expenditure through additional grooming attempts
(Kooyman et al. 1976; Costa and Kooyman, 1982, 1984; Engelhardt 1983).
Sea otters may also ingest oil through grooming of oiled fur and
through ingestion of contaminated prey. Sea otters have exhibited
hemorrhagic gastrointestinal lesions (Baker et al. 1981), lung, liver,
and kidney damage, DNA damage, and altered blood chemistry (Lipscomb
1996; Bickham 1998) after oil ingestion.
Spills may cause direct and indirect effects on critical habitat
elements for sea otters, particularly kelp forests. For example, the
rocky shoreline recovery after the Exxon Valdez oil spill took a decade
or more (Peterson 2003). The initial loss of the rockweed Fucus
gardneri triggered a community cascade, including blooms of ephemeral
green algae caused by loss of Fucus on rocks, followed by loss of
grazing and predatory gastropods. Fucus recovery was constrained;
without canopy cover, Fucus recruits were subject to desiccation. Even
after apparent recovery of Fucus, previously oiled shores exhibited
more rockweed mortality caused by the senescence of the single-aged
stand (Peterson 2003). These studies and others such as those after the
Torrey Canyon oil spill in the United Kingdom (Peterson 2003) point out
the importance of indirect interactions to the continuity of rocky
intertidal communities and the lengthy recovery time after severe
oiling. All of these effects may result in population-level impacts to
sea otters, as demonstrated by the very large Exxon Valdez oil spill
(Albers 2003), with a reduction in otter survival rates still evident 9
years post-spill (Monson 2000).
Oil and gas operators in Cook Inlet are required to prepare spill
prevention and response plans to minimize the risk of a spill and
reduce impacts, should one occur. These efforts help ensure that spills
and unpermitted discharges of contaminants are unlikely. We do not
anticipate effects to sea otters as a result of oil spills from this
activity, and spills are not discussed further in this document.
Collisions
Vessel collisions with marine mammals can result in death or
serious injury. Wounds resulting from ship strike may include massive
trauma, hemorrhaging, broken bones, or propeller lacerations (Knowlton
and Kraus 2001). An animal at the surface may be struck directly by a
vessel, a surfacing animal may hit the bottom of a vessel, or an animal
just below the surface may be cut by a vessel's propeller. Mortality
associated with boat strike has been identified from recovery of
carcasses with lacerations indicative of propeller injuries (e.g., Wild
and Ames 1974; Morejohn et al. 1975). From 1998 to 2001, boat strike
was identified as the cause of death for 5 of 105 southern sea otter
mortalities (Kreuder et al. 2003). From 2006 through 2010, evidence
indicates that 11 southern sea otters were likely struck by boats (USGS
and California Department of Fish and Game, unpublished data cited in
77 FR 59211-59220, September 26, 2012). From January 2003 to May 2013,
researchers recovered 35 southern sea otters with trauma consistent
with impact from a boat hull or propeller. These data suggest a rate of
boat-strike mortality in California of 2.6 otters per year, or about
0.1 percent of the population size.
Boat strike has been documented as a cause of death across all
three stocks of northern sea otters in Alaska. Since 2002, the Service
has undertaken a health and disease study of sea otters in Alaska in
which the Service conducts necropsies on sea otter carcasses to
determine cause of death, disease incidence, and status of general
health parameters. Of 1,433 necropsies conducted during 24 years, boat
strike or blunt trauma was identified as a definitive or presumptive
cause of death in 64 cases (4 percent) (USFWS unpublished data). It has
been determined in most of these cases that, while trauma was the
ultimate cause of death, there was a contributing factor, such as
disease or biotoxin exposure, which incapacitated the animal and made
it more vulnerable to boat strike (USFWS 2014).
In Alaska, the annual rate of mortality from boat strike was
similar to that reported for California: 2.7 otters per year (USFWS
unpublished data). However, these otters belong to much larger and more
dispersed populations where carcass recovery is lower. Instances of
vessel collision are likely to be underreported, and the probability of
collision is unknown.
Likelihood of vessel strikes involving sea otters appears to be
primarily related to vessel speed. Most collision reports have come
from small, fast-moving vessels (NMFS 2003). The severity of injuries
to marine mammals during a boat strike also depends on vessel speed,
with the probability of death or serious injury increasing as vessel
speed increases (Laist et al. 2001; Vanderlaan and Taggart 2007).
Because sea otters spend a considerable portion of their time at the
surface of the water, they are typically visually aware of approaching
boats and are able to move away if a vessel is not traveling too
quickly.
The probability of a sea otter/vessel collision involving the
proposed activities in Cook Inlet is very low for three reasons: First,
most of the work will occur in lower-density regions of Cook Inlet;
second, the project work will involve slow-moving, noisy vessels that
sea otters will easily avoid; and third, the proposed activities will
constitute only a small fraction of the total level of vessel traffic
in the region. The high level of traffic in Cook Inlet increases the
likelihood that otters in the project area are accustomed to avoiding
vessels and activities similar to the activities proposed.
The AGDC pipeline work and work by Hilcorp and Harvest on
maintenance of existing facilities will be conducted in middle Cook
Inlet, in areas that are outside of the normal range of sea otters. The
unusual occurrence of otters in middle Cook Inlet makes vessel
collisions extremely unlikely. Hilcorp and Harvest will conduct their
3D seismic work in offshore areas of lower Cook Inlet where otter
densities are also low. They will conduct 2D seismic work along the
eastern shoreline of lower Cook Inlet where densities are higher, but
vessel speeds during the proposed activities will be slow. Hilcorp's
seismic vessels would travel at approximately 4 knots (kn) or 7.4 km/hr
while towing seismic survey gear and a maximum of 4.5 kn (8.3 km/hr)
while conducting geophysical surveys. Vessel speed during rig towing
will generally be less than 5 kn. AGDC's pipeline construction
operations will proceed at similar slow speeds. Anchor handling will
occur at about 3 kn. For comparison, freighters in Cook Inlet travel at
20 to 24 kn (Eley 2006), and small recreational vessels may travel at
40 kn.
The applicant's support vessels and vessels in transit will travel
at faster speeds; for example, Hilcorp's
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maintenance activities will require the use of dive vessels, typically
ranging up to 21 m (70 ft) in length and capable of approximately 7
knots (13 km/hr). The risk of collision is thus reduced, but not
eliminated, by the predominance of slow-moving vessel work in areas of
low density.
Commercial and recreational vessels are much more common in both
space and time than are geophysical survey activities, drilling support
operations, and pipeline work. Based on U.S. Coast Guard records and
other local sources of information compiled by Eley (2006), 704 large
vessels, other than fuel barges in domestic trade, called at Cook Inlet
ports from January 1, 2005, through July 15, 2006. Almost two-thirds
(65 percent) of the calls were made by container vessels, cargo, or
ferries. Twenty-nine percent (29 percent) of the vessel traffic was gas
or liquid tankships calling primarily at Nikiski. Bulk carriers and
general cargo ships represented 6 percent. Tugs and fishing and
passenger vessels combined represented 2 percent of the Cook Inlet
vessel traffic. Tugs made approximately 150 fuel barge transits a year,
assisted in docking and undocking ships in Nikiski and Anchorage, and
moved miscellaneous deck and gravel barges in and out of the Port of
Anchorage. Although small vessels are less common than larger ships,
they are the most likely source of collision due to faster speeds and
their presence in shallow water where sea otters are common. In 2005,
there were 570 commercial fishing vessels registered in the Cook Inlet
salmon/groundfish fleet. Of these, 86 percent were 31-40 ft in length.
Vessels in this size class typically travel at up to 30 kn while in
transit. The high level of ship traffic in Cook Inlet allows many sea
otters in Cook Inlet to habituate to vessels. This will reduce risk of
collision for the project activities when vessels are in transit.
Although the likelihood of a project vessel striking a sea otter is
low, we intend to require mitigation measures that we believe will
reduce the risk of ship strike. We anticipate that vessel collisions
involving a seismic-data-acquisition vessel towing gear, tugs towing
rigs, or vessels conducting geophysical operations are unlikely given
the rarity of documented collisions, the low densities of otters in
most of the project areas, the frequent vessel traffic to which otters
have become accustomed, and the slow vessel speeds. Vessels in transit
and support vessels travelling at greater rates of speed are more
likely to cause collisions.
Mitigation measures for reducing probability of ship strike include
speed reductions during periods of low visibility, required separation
distances from observed otters, avoidance of nearshore travel, and use
of navigation channels, when practicable. We believe these measures
will further reduce the risk of collision. Given the required
mitigation measures, the relatively slow speed of the vessel towing
gear, the presence of marine mammal observers, and the short duration
of many of the activities, we believe that the possibility of ship
strike is discountable. No incidental take resulting from ship strike
is anticipated, and this potential effect of the specified activity
will not be discussed further in the following analysis.
Characterizing Take
In the previous section, we discussed the components of the
proposed action that have the potential to affect sea otters. Here we
describe and categorize the physiological and behavioral effects that
can be expected based on documented responses to human activities
observed during sea otter studies. We also discuss how these behaviors
are characterized under the MMPA.
An individual sea otter's reaction to a human activity will depend
on its prior exposure to the activity, its need to be in the particular
area, its physiological status, or other intrinsic factors. The
location, timing, frequency, intensity, and duration of the encounter
are among the external factors that will also influence the animal's
response.
Relatively minor reactions such as increased vigilance or a short-
term change in direction of travel are not likely to disrupt
biologically important behavioral patterns and are not considered take
by harassment. These types of responses typify the most likely
reactions of the majority of sea otters that will be exposed to the
applicant's activities.
Reactions capable of causing injury are characterized as Level A
harassment events. Examples include separation of mothers from young or
repeatedly flushing sea otters from a haulout. Exposure to noise
capable of causing PTS is also considered take by Level A harassment.
Intermediate reactions that disrupt biologically significant
behaviors are considered Level B harassment under the MMPA. The Service
has identified the following sea otter behaviors as indicating possible
Level B take:
Swimming away at a fast pace on belly (i.e., porpoising);
Repeatedly raising the head vertically above the water to
get a better view (spyhopping) while apparently agitated or while
swimming away;
In the case of a pup, repeatedly spyhopping while hiding
behind and holding onto its mother's head;
Abandoning prey or feeding area;
Ceasing to nurse and/or rest (applies to dependent pups);
Ceasing to rest (applies to independent animals);
Ceasing to use movement corridors along the shoreline;
Ceasing mating behaviors;
Shifting/jostling/agitation in a raft so that the raft
disperses;
Sudden diving of an entire raft;
Flushing animals off a haulout.
This list is not meant to encompass all possible behaviors; other
situations may also indicate Level B take. It is also important to note
that depending on the duration and severity of the above-described
behaviors, such responses could constitute take by Level A harassment,
e.g., repeatedly flushing sea otters from a haulout versus a single
flushing event.
Direct and Indirect Effects
The reactions of wildlife to disturbance can range from short-term
behavioral changes to long-term impacts that affect survival and
reproduction. Most sea otters will respond to human disturbance with
nonlethal reactions that are similar to antipredator responses (Frid
and Dill 2002). Sea otters are susceptible to predation, particularly
from killer whales and eagles, and have a well-developed antipredator
response to perceived threats. Sea otters will swim away, dive, or hide
among rocks or kelp, and will sometimes spyhop (vertically raise its
head out of the water, presumably to look around) or splash when
threatened. Limbaugh (1961) reported that sea otters were apparently
undisturbed by the presence of a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), but they
were quite concerned with the appearance of a California sea lion. They
demonstrated their fear by actively looking above and beneath the water
when a sea lion was swimming nearby.
Although an increase in vigilance or a flight response is
nonlethal, a tradeoff occurs between risk avoidance and energy
conservation (Frid and Dill 2002). For example, southern sea otters in
areas with heavy recreational boat traffic demonstrated changes in
behavioral time budgeting showing decreased time resting and changes in
haulout patterns and distribution (Benham et al. 2005; Maldini et al.
2012). In an example described by Pavez
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et al. (2015), South American sea lions (Otaria byronia) visited by
tourists exhibited an increase in the state of alertness and a decrease
in maternal attendance and resting time on land, thereby potentially
reducing population size. In another example, killer whales (Orcinus
orca) that lost feeding opportunities due to boat traffic faced a
substantial (18 percent) estimated decrease in energy intake (Williams
et al. 2006). Such disturbance effects can have population-level
consequences. Increased disturbance rates have been associated with a
decline in abundance of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.) (Bejder et
al. 2006; Lusseau et al. 2006).
These examples illustrate direct effects on survival and
reproductive success, but disturbances can also have indirect effects.
When disturbed by noise, animals may respond behaviorally (e.g., escape
response), as well as physiologically (e.g., increased heart rate,
hormonal response) (Harms et al. 1997; Tempel and Gutierrez 2003). In
the absence of an apparent behavioral response, an animal exposed to
noise disturbance may still experience stress and direct energy away
from fitness-enhancing activities such as feeding and mating. The
energy expense and physiological effects could ultimately lead to
reduced survival and reproduction (Gill and Sutherland 2000; Frid and
Dill 2002). Changes in behavior from anthropogenic disturbance can also
include latent agonistic interactions between individuals (Barton et
al. 1998). Chronic stress can lead to weakened reflexes, lowered
learning responses (Welch and Welch 1970; van Polanen Petel et al.
2006), compromised immune function, decreased body weight, and abnormal
thyroid function (Selye 1979).
The type and extent of response may be influenced by intensity of
the disturbance (Cevasco et al. 2001), the extent of previous exposure
to humans (Holcomb et al. 2009), the type of disturbance (Andersen et
al. 2012), and the age and/or sex of the individuals (Shaughnessy et
al. 2008; Holcomb et al. 2009). Despite the importance of understanding
the effects of disturbance, few controlled experiments or field
observations have been conducted on sea otters to address this topic.
Responses to Activities
The available studies of sea otter behavior suggest that sea otters
may be more resistant to the effects of sound disturbance and other
human activities than some other marine mammals. For example, at
Soberanes Point, California, Riedman (1983) examined changes in the
behavior, density, and distribution of southern sea otters that were
exposed to recorded noises associated with oil and gas activity. The
underwater sound sources were played at a level of 110 dB and a
frequency range of 50 to 20,000 Hz and included production platform
activity, drillship, helicopter, and semi-submersible sounds. Riedman
(1983) also observed the sea otters during seismic airgun shots fired
at decreasing distances from the nearshore environment (50, 20, 8, 3.8,
3, 1, and 0.5 nautical miles) at a firing rate of 4 shots per minute
and a maximum air volume of 4,070 cubic inches (in\3\). Riedman (1983)
observed no changes in the presence, density, or behavior of sea otters
as a result of underwater sounds from recordings or airguns, even at
the closest distance of 0.5 nautical miles (<1 km or 0.6 mi). However,
otters did display slight reactions to airborne engine noise. Riedman
(1983, 1984) also monitored the behavior of sea otters along the
California coast while they were exposed to a single 100-in\3\ airgun
and a 4,089-in\3\ airgun array. Sea otters did not respond noticeably
to the single airgun, and no disturbance reactions were evident when
the airgun array was as close as 0.9 km (0.6 mi).
The limited response of sea otters to sound is probably due to
three factors: First, sea otters use habitat where underwater noise
exposure is limited; second, sea otters use sound differently than many
other marine mammals; and third, sea otters show a high degree of
behavioral plasticity in response to disturbance.
Sea otters spend from 30 to 80 percent of their time each day at
the surface of the water resting and grooming (Riedman 1983, 1984;
Bodkin et al. 2004; Wolt et al. 2012). While at the surface, turbulence
from wind and waves attenuate noise more quickly than in deeper water,
reducing potential noise exposure (Greene and Richardson 1988;
Richardson et al. 1995). Additionally, Lloyd's mirror effects limit the
transference of sound from water to air. A sea otter with its head
above water will be exposed to only a small fraction of the sound
energy travelling through the water beneath it. Thus, the amount of
total time spent at the surface may help limit sea otters' exposure
during noise-generating operations.
Many marine mammals depend on acoustic cues for vital biological
functions, such as orientation, communication, locating prey, and
avoiding predators. However, sea otters do not rely on sound to orient
themselves, locate prey, or communicate underwater. Sea otters use
sound for communication in air (especially mothers and pups; McShane et
al. 1995) and may avoid predators by monitoring underwater sound. Davis
et al. (1987) documented sea otters retreating from simulated killer
whale vocalizations. Otters are not known to vocalize underwater and do
not echolocate; therefore, masking of communications by anthropogenic
sound is less of a concern than for other mammals.
Sea otters generally show a high degree of tolerance to noise. In
another study using prerecorded sounds, Davis et al. (1988) exposed
both northern sea otters in Simpson Bay, Alaska, and southern sea
otters in Morro Bay, California, to a variety of airborne and
underwater sounds, including a warble tone, sea otter pup calls, killer
whale calls, airhorns, and an underwater acoustic harassment system
designed to drive marine mammals away from crude oil spills. The sounds
were projected at a variety of frequencies, decibel levels, and
intervals. The authors noted that certain acoustic stimuli could cause
a startle response and result in dispersal. However, the disturbance
effects were limited in range (no responses were observed for otters
approximately 100-200 m (328-656 ft) from the source of the stimuli),
and habituation to the stimuli was generally very quick (within hours
or, at most, 3 to 4 days).
Southern sea otters in an area with frequent railroad noise
appeared to be relatively undisturbed by pile-driving activities, many
showing no response and generally reacting more strongly to passing
vessels than to the sounds of pile-driving equipment (ESNERR 2011; ESA
2016). Additionally, many of the otters who displayed a reaction
behavior during pile driving did so while their heads were above the
surface of the water, suggesting that airborne noise was as important
as, and possibly more important than underwater noise in prompting the
animals' reactions. When sea otters have displayed behavioral reactions
in response to acoustic stimuli, these responses were often short-
lived; the otters resumed normal activities soon after a new sound was
introduced (Davis et al. 1987, 1988).
Among sea otters, exposure to moderate to high levels of underwater
noise is not likely to cause injury and mortality from stranding or
excessive nitrogen accumulation, both of which are concerns for other
species of marine mammals, but the possibility of hearing loss cannot
be discounted. The consequences of hearing loss among otters remains
unknown. We have much more information about the observable
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responses of sea otters to human activities.
Stimuli from shoreline construction activities, aircraft, and
vessel traffic, including noise, are likely to cause some level of
disturbance. Populations of sea otters in Alaska have been known to
avoid areas with heavy boat traffic but return to those same areas
during seasons with less traffic (Garshelis and Garshelis 1984). Sea
otters in Alaska have shown signs of disturbance (escape behaviors) in
response to the presence and approach of survey vessels, including:
Otters diving and/or actively swimming away from a boat; hauled-out
otters entering the water; and groups of otters disbanding and swimming
in multiple different directions (Udevitz et al. 1995).
In Cook Inlet, otters were observed riding the tides past a new
offshore drilling platform while drilling was being conducted. Otters
drifting on a trajectory that would have taken them within 500 m (0.3
mi) of the rig tended to swim to change their angle of drift to avoid a
close approach, although noise levels from the work were near the
ambient level of underwater noise (BlueCrest 2013).
Sea otter behavior is suggestive of a dynamic response to
disturbance, influenced by the intensity and duration of the source.
Otters initially abandon areas when disturbed and return when the
disturbance ceases. Groups of sea otters in two locations in California
showed markedly different responses to kayakers approaching to within
specific distances, suggesting a different level of tolerance between
the groups (Gunvalson 2011). Benham (2006) found evidence that the
otters exposed to high levels of recreational activity may have become
more tolerant than individuals in less-disturbed areas.
Some individual otters will habituate to the presence of project
vessels, noise, and activity. Sea otters often seem quite tolerant of
boats or humans nearby (e.g., Calkins 1979). Sea otters off the
California coast showed only mild interest in boats passing within
hundreds of meters and appeared to have habituated to boat traffic
(Riedman 1983; Curland 1997). Boat traffic, commercial and
recreational, is common in Cook Inlet. However, there are seasonal
(i.e., temporal) and spatial components to vessel traffic. Both
recreational and commercial vessel traffic in Kachemak Bay is much
higher than in western Cook Inlet, and all traffic is much higher in
summer than in other months. Some sea otters in the area of activity
are likely to have already become habituated to vessel traffic and
noise caused by vessels, whereas for others, the proposed activities
will be a novel experience and will elicit a more intense response.
Some degree of disturbance is also possible from unmitigated
aircraft activities. Individual sea otters in Cook Inlet will show a
range of responses to noise from low-flying aircraft. Some may abandon
the flightpath area and return when the disturbance has ceased. Based
on the observed movement patterns of wild sea otters (i.e., Lensink
1962; Kenyon 1969, 1981; Garshelis and Garshelis 1984; Riedman and
Estes 1990; Tinker and Estes 1996, and others), we expect that some
individuals, independent juveniles, for example, will respond to the
proposed activities by dispersing to areas of suitable habitat nearby,
while others, especially breeding-age adult males, will not be
displaced by overflights. Mitigation measures will stipulate a minimum
of 305 m (1,000 ft) flight altitude to avoid harassment of otters.
Given the observed responses of sea otters to sources of
disturbance, it is likely that some degree of take by harassment will
occur due to underwater noise stimuli associated with the proposed
activities. Some otters will likely show startle responses, change
direction of travel, disperse from the area, or dive. Sea otters
reacting to project activities may expend energy and divert time and
attention from biologically important behaviors, such as feeding. Some
effects may be undetectable in observations of behavior, especially the
physiological effects of chronic and cumulative noise exposure. Air and
vessel traffic, commercial and recreational, is routine in Cook Inlet.
Construction activities are common. Some sea otters in the area of
activity may become habituated to noise caused by the project due to
the existing continual air traffic in the area and will have little, if
any, reaction to project activities.
Mitigation and Monitoring
If an ITR is issued, it must specify means for effecting the least
practicable adverse impact on sea otters and their habitat, paying
particular attention to habitat areas of significance, and on the
availability of sea otters for taking for subsistence uses by coastal-
dwelling Alaska Natives. These proposed measures are outlined in Sec.
18.137 Mitigation.
In evaluating what mitigation measures are appropriate to ensure
the least practicable adverse impact on species or stocks and their
habitat, as well as subsistence uses, we considered the manner in
which, and the degree to which, the successful implementation of the
measures are expected to reduce impacts to sea otters, stocks, and
their habitat, as well as subsistence uses. We considered the nature of
the potential adverse impact being mitigated (likelihood, scope,
range), the likelihood the measures will be effective, and the
likelihood the measures will be implemented. We also considered the
practicability of the measures for applicant implementation (e.g.,
cost, impact on operations).
To reduce the potential for disturbance from acoustic stimuli
associated with the activities, the following mitigation measures will
be applied:
Development of marine mammal monitoring and mitigation
plans;
Establishment of an exclusion zone (EZ) and safety zone
(SZ) during noise-generating work;
Visual mitigation monitoring by designated protected
species observers (PSOs);
Site clearance before startup;
Shutdown procedures;
Power-down procedures;
Ramp-up procedures; and
Vessel strike avoidance measures.
A marine mammal mitigation and monitoring plan that will identify
the specific avoidance and minimization measures an applicant will take
to reduce effects to otters. It will describe the project in detail,
assess the effects, identify effective means to avoid effects, and
describe specific methods for limiting effects when they cannot be
avoided.
During ``noise-generating work'' (work that creates underwater
sound louder than 160 dB and within the frequency hearing range of sea
otters), an applicant will establish and monitor an exclusion zone
(EZ). This zone is defined as the area surrounding a sound source in
which all operations must be shut down in the event a sea otter enters
or is about to enter this zone based on distances to Level A
thresholds. Any otter detected within this zone will be exposed to
sound levels likely to cause take by Level A harassment. The safety
zone (SZ) is an area larger than the EZ and is defined as the area in
which otters may experience noise above the Level B exposure threshold.
Sea otters observed inside the SZ are likely to be disturbed by
underwater noise, and each otter within the SZ will be counted as one
Level B take. In the event a sea otter is in or about to enter the
zone, operations will be powered down, when practicable, to minimize
take. Radii of each SZ and EZ will be specified in each LOA issued
under this proposed ITR. The methodology for calculation of the radii
will be described in each LOA
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and is identified in proposed Sec. 18.137 Mitigation. A minimum 10-m
(33-ft) shutdown zone will be observed for all in-water construction
and heavy machinery.
PSOs will be stationed on the source vessel or at a suitable
vantage point with maximum view of the SZ and EZ. The PSOs will clear
the EZ prior to the start of daily activities for which take has been
requested or if activities have been stopped for longer than a 30-
minute period. The PSOs will ensure the EZ is clear of sea otters for a
period of 30 minutes. Clearing the EZ means no sea otters have been
observed within the EZ for that 30-minute period. If any sea otters
have been observed within the EZ, ramp-up cannot start until the sea
otter has left the EZ or has not been observed in the EZ for a 30-
minute period prior to the start of the survey.
A power-down procedure will be in place during seismic work. It
will involve reducing the number of airguns in use, which reduces the
EZ or SZ radius. In contrast, a shutdown procedure occurs when all
airgun activity is suspended immediately. During a power down, a single
airgun (``mitigation gun'') remains operational, maintaining a sound
source with a much-reduced EZ. If a sea otter is detected outside of
either the SZ or EZ but is likely to enter that zone, the airguns may
be powered down before the animal is within the radius, as an
alternative to a complete shutdown. Likewise, if a sea otter is already
within the SZ when first detected, the airguns will be powered down if
this is a reasonable alternative to an immediate shutdown. If a sea
otter is already within the EZ when first detected, the airguns will be
shut down immediately. All power down events will be at the discretion
of the operator in cooperation with the PSOs. The applicant has
determined that it is not practicable to power down in response to all
sea otters within the SZ, and that to do so would incapacitate the 2D
and 3D seismic operations. Because power down events will be
discretionary, all otters within the SZ will be assumed to experience
Level B take regardless of whether a power down is conducted. Although
there is no calculated reduction of take estimated for this mitigation
measure due to uncertainty in its application, it is expected that some
unquantified benefits to sea otters will be realized whenever the
operator powers down to reduce sea otter noise exposures.
A shutdown will occur when all underwater sound generation that is
louder than 160 dB and within the frequency hearing range of sea otters
is suspended. The sound source will be shut down completely if a sea
otter approaches the EZ or appears to be in distress due to the noise-
generating work. The shutdown procedure will be accomplished within
several seconds of the determination that a sea otter is either in or
about to enter the EZ. Following a shutdown, noise-generating work will
not resume until the sea otter has cleared the EZ. Any shutdown due to
a sea otter sighting within the EZ must be followed by a 30-minute all-
clear period and then a standard, full ramp-up. Any shutdown for other
reasons resulting in the cessation of the sound source for a period
greater than 30 minutes must also be followed by full ramp-up
procedures.
A ``ramp-up'' procedure will be in place to gradually increase
sound volume at a specified rate. Ramp-up is used at the start of
airgun operations, including after a power down, shutdown, or any
period greater than 10 minutes in duration without airgun operations.
The rate of ramp-up will be no more than 6 dB per 5-minute period.
Ramp-up will begin with the smallest gun in the array that is being
used for all airgun array configurations. The ramp-up procedure for
pipe/pile driving involves initially starting with soft strikes. If the
complete EZ has not been visible for at least 30 minutes prior to the
start of operations, ramp-up will not commence unless the mitigation
gun has been operating during the interruption of seismic survey
operations. It will not be permissible to ramp up the 24-gun source
from a complete shutdown in thick fog or at other times when the outer
part of the EZ is not visible. Ramp-up of the airguns will not be
initiated if a sea otter is sighted within the EZ at any time.
A speed or course alteration is appropriate if a sea otter is
detected outside the EZ and, based on its position and relative motion,
is likely to enter the EZ, and a vessel's speed and/or direct course
may, when practical and safe, be changed. This technique can be used in
coordination with a power-down procedure. The sea otter activities and
movements relative to the seismic and support vessels will be closely
monitored to ensure that the sea otter does not approach within the EZ.
If the mammal appears likely to enter the EZ, further mitigative
actions will be taken, i.e., further course alterations, power down, or
shutdown of the airguns.
A stakeholder engagement plan is required to determine whether
conflicts with subsistence activities are likely to arise. If so, the
applicant will be required to develop a plan of cooperation (POC),
which will identify what measures have been taken and/or will be taken
to minimize adverse effects on the availability of sea otters for
subsistence purposes. The POC will include the applicant's plan to meet
with the affected communities, both prior to and while conducting the
activity, to resolve conflicts and to notify the communities of any
changes in the operation. The POC will help coordinate activities with
local stakeholders and thus subsistence users, minimize the risk of
interfering with subsistence hunting activities, and keep current as to
the timing and status of the subsistence hunts. The applicant's
stakeholder engagement plan is provided with the applicant's petition,
which is available as described in ADDRESSES. Meetings and
communication will be coordinated with Cook Inlet Regional Citizens
Advisory Council, local landowners, government and community
organizations, and environmental groups.
In order to issue an LOA for an activity, section 101(a)(5)(A) of
the MMPA states that the Service must set forth ``requirements
pertaining to the monitoring and reporting of such taking.'' The
Service's implementing regulations at 50 CFR 18.27(d)(1)(vii) indicate
that requests for authorizations must include the suggested means of
accomplishing the necessary monitoring and reporting. Effective
reporting is critical to compliance as well as ensuring that the most
value is obtained from the required monitoring. The applicant will
employ PSOs to conduct visual project monitoring. During 2D and 3D
seismic surveys, Hilcorp and Harvest have agreed to conduct aerial
overflights for avoidance of other marine mammal species, which will
improve monitoring of sea otters. Additional proposed monitoring and
reporting requirements are at Sec. 18.138 Monitoring and Sec. 18.139
Reporting requirements.
Based on our evaluation of the applicant's proposed measures, as
well as other measures considered, we have preliminarily determined
that the proposed mitigation measures provide the means of effecting
the least practicable adverse impact on sea otter stocks and their
habitat.
Estimated Incidental Take
This section provides the number of incidental takes estimated to
occur because of the proposed activities. The number of individuals
taken and the number of takes per individual are then analyzed to make
the required small numbers and negligible impact determinations.
[[Page 10238]]
Estimating Exposure Rates
The Service anticipates that incidental take of sea otters may
occur during the proposed activities in Cook Inlet. Noise, aircraft,
vessels, and human activities could temporarily interrupt feeding,
resting, and movement patterns. Elevated underwater noise levels from
seismic surveys may cause short-term, nonlethal, but biologically
significant changes in behavior that the Service considers harassment.
Pile-driving and other constructing activities along the shoreline may
have similar effects and could cause behavioral disturbance leading to
take. Harassment (Level A or B) is the only type of take expected to
result from these activities; no lethal take is expected.
The number of animals affected will be determined by the
distribution of animals and their location in proximity to the project
work. Although we cannot predict the outcome of each encounter, it is
possible to consider the most likely reactions, given observed
responses of marine mammals to various stimuli.
Sound exposure criteria provide the best available proxy for
estimation of exposure. The behavioral response of sea otters to
shoreline construction and vessel activities is related to the distance
between the activity and the animals. Underwater sound is generated in
tandem with other airborne visual, olfactory, or auditory signals from
the specified activities, and travels much farther. Therefore,
estimating exposure to underwater sound can be used to estimate the
number of otters exposed to all proposed activities.
No separate exposure evaluation was done for activities that do not
generate underwater sound. Nearly all of the proposed activities that
may disturb sea otters will occur simultaneously with in-water
activities that do generate sound. For example, operation of heavy
equipment along the shoreline will facilitate underwater pile driving.
The otters affected by the equipment operations are the same as those
affected by the pile driving. Sound exposure and behavioral
disturbances are accumulated over a 24-hour period, resulting in
estimation of one exposure from all in-water sources rather than one
each from equipment operations and pile-driving noise. Aircraft support
activities will be conducted without a corresponding underwater sound
component, but no take is expected from this source of disturbance; see
``Airborne Sounds.''
To estimate the numbers of sea otters likely to experience take, we
first calculated the number of otters in Cook Inlet that occur within
the project area. The number of otters was calculated from density
multiplied by project area. Density was estimated according to region
in Cook Inlet.
Density data for Kamishak and the East side of Cook Inlet along the
shore of the Kenai Peninsula was derived from aerial surveys conducted
in May 2017 (Garlich-Miller et al. 2018). Surveys were not conducted
for central Cook Inlet in 2017, and 2017 surveys for western Cook Inlet
north of Kamishak did not yield useful results. Therefore, the density
for those regions was derived from the 2002 surveys conducted by Bodkin
et al. (2003) and corrected for population growth proportional to the
growth rate of Cook Inlet as a whole, as determined from comparison of
the 2002 and 2017 surveys. Density values (in otters per km\2\) were
1.7 in East Cook Inlet (excluding Kachemak Bay and the outer Coast of
Kenai Peninsula south and east of Seldovia), 3.53 in Kamishak Bay, and
0.026 in West and Central Cook Inlet. There are no density data for sea
otters in the middle Cook Inlet region north of approximately
60[deg]14' N (the latitude of Clam Gulch), and otters are uncommon
north of about 60[deg]24' N. Therefore, densities north of Clam Gulch
were conservatively assumed to equal the 2002 mid-Cook Inlet survey
region density of 0.01 per km\2\ from Bodkin et al. (2003).
The geographic area of activity covers approximately 11,084 km\2\
(4,280 mi\2\) in Cook Inlet. Of this area, 1,572 km\2\ (607 mi\2\) is
in East Cook Inlet, 725 km\2\ (280 mi\2\) in Kamishak Bay, 4,341 km\2\
(1,676 mi\2\) in West and Central Cook Inlet, and 4,445 km\2\ (1,716
mi\2\) in Cook Inlet north of the normal range of sea otters. The total
number of otters within the project area was calculated to be 5,389
otters ((1,572 x 1.7) + (725 x 3.53) + (4,341 x 0.026) + (4,445 x 0.01)
[ap] 5,389).
Not all otters in the project area will be exposed to project
activities. Many activities associated with oil and gas exploration,
development, production, and transportation may result in underwater
sounds and potential disturbance to marine mammals, but will not meet
Levels A and B acoustic harassment criteria. The acoustic
characteristics of the different project activities are described in
Table 3. Only those specific activities with the likelihood of meeting
the acoustic exposure criteria and occurring in the normal range of sea
otters were evaluated for estimation of potential Levels A and B
harassment. Specifically, Hilcorp's activities include 2D and 3D
seismic surveys, vibratory driving of sheet piles at the Iniskin
Peninsula causeway in Chinitna Bay, sub-bottom profilers used in high-
and low-resolution geohazard surveys, drive-pipe installation, vertical
seismic profiling, tugs towing the rig for exploratory wells, plug and
abandon activities, and use of water jets or hydraulic grinders during
routine maintenance. AGDC's activities include pile driving and anchor
handling.
The number of otters that will be exposed to underwater sound
levels capable of causing take by Level A and Level B harassment from
specific project elements was estimated using the methods recommended
by NMFS (2018a,b) for otariid pinnipeds. We multiplied the estimated
area in which underwater sound in the frequency range of otter hearing
from each activity will exceed 160 dB, termed the ``area of
ensonification'' (km\2\), by the density of sea otters in that area
(number (#) of otters/km\2\) to estimate the number of otters in the
ensonified area. This value was then multiplied by the duration of the
activity (# of days) over the course of the 5-year regulatory period to
get the total number of exposures to sound above the thresholds for
take.
Predicting Behavioral Response Rates
Although we cannot predict the outcome of each encounter between a
sea otter and the equipment and vessels used for the proposed
activities, it is possible to consider the most likely reactions. Sea
otters have shown little reaction to underwater sounds but the presence
of vessels may elicit stronger behavioral (see Responses to
Activities). Whether an individual animal responds behaviorally to the
presence of vessels and equipment is dependent upon several variables,
including the activity of the animal prior to stimulus, whether the
animal is habituated to similar disturbances, whether the animal is in
a state of heightened awareness due to recent disturbances or the
presence of predators, group size, the presence of pups, and the
temperament of the individual animals. We assumed all animals exposed
to underwater sound levels that meet acoustic criteria would experience
Level A or Level B take.
Calculating Take
The total take of sea otters from the proposed oil and gas
activities in Cook Inlet was estimated by calculating the number of
otters in the ensonified area during the full duration of the project.
Distances to Thresholds
To calculate the ensonified area, we first estimated the distances
that underwater sound will travel before attenuating to levels below
thresholds
[[Page 10239]]
for take by Level A and Level B harassment. The distances to the Level
A thresholds were calculated using the NMFS Acoustical Guidance
Spreadsheets (NMFS 2018b) using thresholds for otariid pinnipeds as a
proxy for sea otters. Distances to the 160-dB Level B threshold were
calculated using a practical spreading transmission loss model (15
LogR). The only exceptions to the use of the practical spreading model
were made when data was available from a site-specific sound source
verification of substantially similar equipment used and powered in a
similar manner to that proposed by the applicant.
Model estimates incorporated operational and environmental
parameters for each activity. For example, sound levels at the source
are shown in Table 3, and characteristics of the sound produced are
shown in Table 6. Weighting factor adjustments were used for SEL (sound
exposure level) calculations based on NMFS Technical Guidance (2018b).
Operational parameters were estimated from the description of
activities.
The distances to the modelled Level A and Level B thresholds are
shown in Table 7. Each estimate represents the radial distance away
from the sound source within which a sea otter exposed to the sound of
the activity is expected to experience take by Level A or Level B
harassment.
Table 6--Assumptions Used in Calculating Distances to Level A and Level B Thresholds
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source Pulse
Activity Type of source Source level \1\ WFA \2\ velocity duration Repetition rate Duration per day
(kHz) (m/s) (s)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2D/3D seismic................... Mobile Impulsive... 217 @100 m (185 1 2.05 N/A every 6 s......... N/A.
dBSEL @100 m).
Sub bottom profiler............. Mobile Impulsive... 212 @1 m........... 4 2.05 0.02 every 0.30 s...... N/A.
Impact pile driving............. Stationary <=195 @10 m........ 2 N/A N/A 1,560 strikes/hr.. <=5.5 hrs/day.
Impulsive.
Pipe driving.................... Stationary <=195 @55 m........ 2 N/A 0.02 <=1,560 strikes/hr <=4.8 hrs/day.
Impulsive.
Vertical seismic profiling...... Stationary 227 @1 m........... 1 N/A 0.02 every 6 s......... 4 hrs/day.
Impulsive.
Impact sheet piling............. Stationary 190 @10 m.......... 2 N/A 0.02 1,560 strikes/hr.. 3 hrs/day.
Impulsive.
Vibratory sheet piling.......... Stationary Non- 160 @10 m.......... 2.5 N/A N/A N/A............... <=4.8 hrs/day.
impulsive.
Water jet....................... Stationary Non- 176 @1 m........... 2 N/A N/A N/A............... 0.5 hrs/day.
impulsive.
Hydraulic grinder............... Stationary Non- 159 @1m............ 2 N/A N/A N/A............... 0.5 hrs/day.
impulsive.
Tug towing...................... Mobile Non- 191 @1 m........... 1.5 1.54 N/A N/A............... 6 hrs/day.
impulsive.
Anchor handling................. Mobile Non- 179 @1 m........... 1.5 1.54 N/A N/A............... 3 hrs/day.
impulsive.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Source level is given in dBrms, unless otherwise indicated, as measured at the given distance from the source in meters.
\2\ Weighting Factor Adjustment.
Table 7--Calculated Distance in Meters (m) to Level A and Level B Thresholds
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level A--NMFS Otariid Level B--USFWS
------------------------------------------------------------------
Activity Impulsive Non-impulsive Both
------------------------------------------------------------------
232 dB peak 203 dB SEL 219 dB SEL 160 dB rms
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2D/3D seismic................................ 10 1.32 N/A 7,330
Sub-bottom profiler.......................... 0.05 0.80 N/A 2,929
Pipe driving, Chinitna Bay................... 0.19 5.21 N/A 1,630
VSP.......................................... 0.46 284.84 N/A 2,470
Vibratory sheet pile driving................. N/A N/A 0.63 10
Water jet.................................... N/A N/A 0.56 11.66
Hydraulic grinder............................ N/A N/A 0.04 0.86
Tug towing................................... N/A N/A 0.00 107.98
18- and 24-inch pipe, impact................. 0.22 50.53 N/A 1,874.85
48- and 60-inch pipe, impact................. 0.34 147.99 N/A 2,154.43
all sizes pipe, vibratory.................... N/A N/A 3.30 46.42
Sheet pile, impact........................... 0.16 68.69 NA 1,000
Sheet pile, vibratory........................ N/A N/A 0.71 10
Anchor handling.............................. N/A N/A 0.00 37.41
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Area and Duration
The area of ensonification is the area in which an animal exposed
to underwater sound is expected to experience take from Level A or
Level B harassment. The area of a circle (A=[pi]r \2\) where r is the
distance to the Level A or Level B threshold was used to calculate the
area of ensonification for impulsive stationary sources (pipe driving,
vertical seismic profiling), non-impulsive stationary sources (water
jets, hydraulic grinders, vibratory pile driving), and non-impulsive
mobile sources (tugs towing rigs and anchor handling). For impulsive
mobile sources (2D/3D seismic, sub-bottom profiler), the area was then
multiplied by the distance of the line to be surveyed each day. Otters
spend most of their time at the water's surface or below their last
[[Page 10240]]
surface location, so a circle with the sound source at its center is a
reasonable representation of the ensonified area. For shoreline
activities, the area of the circle is divided by two to remove the area
that lies above the water line. Details about the assumptions used in
calculations of the area of ensonification for each proposed activity
are available in the applicant's petition, which is available as
described in ADDRESSES.
The area of ensonification was then multiplied by the density of
otters in the applicable region of Cook Inlet to estimate the number of
otters that might be taken. The results are shown in Table 8. The total
number of sea otters in Cook Inlet expected to be taken by Level A
harassment over the 5-year course of this proposed ITR is 1. The total
expected to be taken by Level B harassment over the 5-year course of
this proposed ITR is 93.
The number of otters taken from each stock was estimated by
categorizing activity by its location relative to sea otter stock
boundaries. Some activities will occur in both the southcentral and
southwestern stock boundaries. For these, take of sea otters was
assigned in proportion to the area of the activity within each stock
region. Of the estimated 93 otters expected to be taken by Level B
harassment, 9 otters will belong to the southwest stock, and 84 to the
southcentral stock. The one otter estimated to experience Level A take
is likely to be from the southcentral stock.
The next step in analysis was to multiply the estimate of the
number of individual otters taken by the duration of each activity to
calculate the total number of takes. The total number of takes is
higher than the number of otters taken because, for example, a resident
otter may be taken on each day of noise-generating activity. For some
projects, like the 3D seismic survey, the design of the project is well
developed; therefore, the duration is well defined. However, for some
projects, the duration is not well developed, such as activities around
the lower Cook Inlet well sites. In each case, the calculations are
based on the applicant's best forecast of activities in the 5-year ITR
period. The assumptions regarding duration of these activities are
presented in the applicant's petition. The durations used for each
activity are provided in Table 9. We assumed one take per day
regardless of duration of work within a day. The resulting estimate of
the total number of Level B takes expected from proposed oil and gas
activities in Cook Inlet from 2019 through the date 5 years from the
effective date of the final rule is 1,663. The total number of takes by
activity are also presented in Table 9.
The total number of takes from each stock was calculated in the
same manner as for estimation of individuals taken. The proportion of
takes was set equal to the proportion of an activity occurring inside a
stock boundary. The total number of takes of sea otters from the
southwest stock is 410. The take number from the southcentral stock is
1,256. A summary of take is shown in Table 10.
Table 8--Number of Sea Otters Expected To Be Taken
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level A Level B
---------------------------------------------------------------
Applicant Activity Density (#/ Impulsive Non-impulsive
km\2\) ------------------------------------------------ 160 rms
232 pk 203 SEL 219 SEL
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.................... 2D seismic.................. 1.705 0.102 0.013 .............. 74.986
3D seismic.................. 0.026 0.019 0.003 .............. 14.118
Vibratory sheet pile driving 0.026 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Sub-bottom profiler-LCI..... 0.026 0.000 0.000 .............. 1.505
Sub-bottom profiler-NCI..... 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.579
Sub-bottom profiler-TB...... 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.579
Sub-bottom profiler-MCI..... 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.072
Pipe driving-LCI............ 0.026 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.217
Pipe driving-TB............. 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.083
VSP-LCI..................... 0.026 0.000 0.005 .............. 0.498
VSP-TB...................... 0.010 0.000 0.002 .............. 0.192
Hydraulic grinder........... 0.010 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Water jet................... 0.010 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Tugs towing rig-LCI......... 0.026 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Tugs towing rig-NCI......... 0.010 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Tugs towing rig-TB.......... 0.010 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
AGDC...................................... Product Loading Facility.... .............. .............. .............. .............. ..............
48-inch impact.............. 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.073
60-inch impact.............. 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.073
Temporary MOF............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ..............
18-inch vibratory........... 0.010 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
24-inch impact.............. 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.054
48-inch impact.............. 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.073
60-inch vibratory........... 0.010 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
sheet vibratory............. 0.010 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Mainline MOF................ .............. .............. .............. .............. ..............
sheet vibratory............. 0.010 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
sheet impact................ 0.010 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.016
Anchor handling............. 0.010000 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total................................. ............................ .............. 0.122 0.025 0.000 93.117
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[[Page 10241]]
Table 9--Estimate of Total Take for Each Proposed Activity
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level A Level B
---------------------------------------------------------------
Applicant Activity Duration Impulsive Non-impulsive
(days) ------------------------------------------------ 160 rms
232 pk 203 SEL 219 SEL
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hilcorp/Harvest Alaska.................... 2D seismic.................. 10.000 1.023 0.135 .............. 749.859
3D seismic.................. 60.000 1.156 0.152 .............. 847.090
Vibratory sheet pile driving 5.000 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Sub-bottom profiler-LCI..... 31.093 0.001 0.013 .............. 46.783
Sub-bottom profiler-NCI..... 7.773 0.000 0.001 .............. 4.498
Sub-bottom profiler-TB...... 15.547 0.000 0.002 .............. 8.997
Sub-bottom profiler-MCI..... 2.915 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.211
Pipe driving-LCI............ 3.000 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.651
Pipe driving-TB............. 1.500 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.125
VSP-LCI..................... 2.000 0.000 0.010 .............. 0.997
VSP-TB...................... 1.000 0.000 0.002 .............. 0.192
Hydraulic grinder........... 10.500 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Water jet................... 10.500 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Tugs towing rig-LCI......... 14.000 .............. .............. 0.000 0.013
Tugs towing rig-NCI......... 21.000 .............. .............. 0.000 0.008
Tugs towing rig-TB.......... 18.000 .............. .............. 0.000 0.007
AGDC...................................... Product Loading Facility.... .............. .............. .............. .............. ..............
48-inch impact.............. 14.000 0.000 0.005 .............. 1.021
60-inch impact.............. 26.500 0.000 0.009 .............. 1.932
Temporary MOF............... .............. .............. .............. .............. ..............
18-inch vibratory........... 21.804 .............. .............. 0.000 0.001
24-inch impact.............. 1.750 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.094
48-inch impact.............. 1.750 0.000 0.001 .............. 0.128
60-inch vibratory........... 4.300 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
sheet vibratory............. 26.104 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
Mainline MOF................ .............. .............. .............. .............. ..............
sheet vibratory............. 2.68 .............. .............. 0.000 0.000
sheet impact................ 1.68 0.000 0.000 .............. 0.026
Anchor handling............. 19.00 .............. .............. 0.000 0.00
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total................................. ............................ .............. 2.180 0.331 0.000 1,662.634
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Table 10--Summary of Estimates of Sea Otter Take by Level A and Level B Harassment and Stock
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Southwest Southcentral
Type Unit of take stock stock Sum
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level A............................... Number of takes......... 0 3 3
Level B............................... Number of takes......... 410 1,253 1,663
-----------------------------------------------
Total............................. Number of takes......... 410 1,256 1,666
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level A............................... Number of otters taken.. 0 1 1
Level B............................... Number of otters taken.. 9 84 93
-----------------------------------------------
Total............................. Number of otters taken.. 9 85 94
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Annual Estimates of Take
The estimates of exposures by activity and location discussed in
the previous section are not representative of the estimated exposures
per year (i.e., annual takes). It is difficult to characterize each
year accurately because many of the activities are progressive (i.e.,
they depend on results and/or completion of the previous activity).
This results in much uncertainty in the timing, duration, and complete
scope of work. Each year, each applicant will submit an application for
an LOA with the specific details of the planned work for that year and
estimated take numbers. Table 11 summarizes the activities according to
a scenario presented in the applicant's petition. This scenario
combines the most realistic progression by Hilcorp and Harvest with an
optimistic scenario for AGDC. In the first season, Hilcorp and Harvest
plan to conduct 3D seismic surveys. In the second season, in lower Cook
Inlet they plan to conduct activities for one well; in middle Cook
Inlet, they plan to conduct plugging and abandonment activities in
North Cook Inlet Unit and two wells in the Trading Bay area. In the
third season, activities include drilling two wells in lower Cook
Inlet. The final well in lower Cook Inlet is planned for the fourth
season.
The timing of AGDC's activities will depend on final authorizations
and funding and may begin in 2020 rather than 2019. Season 1 will be
the first year of project work regardless of year, followed by season 2
during the second year, etc. Work will generally occur from April
through October. Material offloading facilities will be constructed in
the first and second season, and a product loading facility will be
installed during seasons 2, 3, and 4. Installation of the gas pipeline
is planned for seasons 3 and 4 as well. The anticipated timing of
project components that are
[[Page 10242]]
likely to meet or exceed criteria for take of sea otters is shown in
Table 11.
The annual number of takes and the number of sea otters taken was
then estimated by allocating the total expected take by proportion of
each project component occurring in each year. For example, the 2D
seismic surveys are planned for year 3, so all takes and otters taken
during 2D seismic surveys were assigned to year 3. The resulting
estimates of total take by year and number of otters taken by year are
shown in Table 12.
Table 11--Noise-Generating Activities by Year
[Activities are those with source levels above 160 dB rms within frequencies heard by sea otters]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Year Applicant Activity Area
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2019--Season 1................. Hilcorp/Harvest...................... 3D seismic....... LCI
Geohazard........ LCI
Sheet pile LCI
driving in Chinitna Bay. MCI
Pipeline
maintenance (geohazard,
water jet, grinder).
AGDC................................. Sheet pile MCI
driving at TMOF. MCI
Sheet pile
driving at MMOF.
2020--Season 2................. Hilcorp/Harvest...................... Drilling LCI
activities (tugs, MCI
geohazard, pipe driving, MCI
VSP) at 1 well. MCI
Drilling
activities (tugs,
geohazard, pipe driving,
VSP) at 2 wells in TB.
P&A activities
(tugs, geohazard) at 1
well in the NCI.
Pipeline
maintenance (geohazard,
water jet, grinder).
AGDC................................. Impact pile LCI
driving at PLF: 80 48- MCI
inch piles, 63 60-inch MCI
piles.
Sheet pile
driving at TMOF.
Sheet pile
driving at MMOF.
2021--Season 3................. Hilcorp/Harvest...................... Drilling LCI
activities (tugs, LCI
geohazard, pipe driving, MCI
VSP) at 2 wells.
2D seismic.......
Pipeline
maintenance (geohazard,
water jet, grinder).
AGDC................................. Impact pile LCI
driving at PLF: 40 48- MCI
inch piles, 80 60-inch
piles.
Anchor handling
for pipeline installation.
2022--Season 4................. Hilcorp/Harvest...................... Drilling LCI
activities (tugs, MCI
geohazard, pipe driving,
VSP) at 1 well.
Pipeline
maintenance (geohazard,
water jet, grinder).
AGDC................................. Impact pile LCI
driving at PLF: 10 48- MCI
inch piles, 48 60-inch
piles.
Anchor handling
for pipeline installation.
2023--Season 5................. Hilcorp/Harvest...................... Pipeline MCI
maintenance (geohazard,
water jet, grinder).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LCI = Lower Cook Inlet, MCI = Middle Cook Inlet Wells, NCI = North Cook Inlet Unit, TB = Trading Bay, PLF =
Product Loading Facility, TMOF = Temporary Material Offloading Facility, MMOF = Mainline Material Offloading
Facility, VSP = Vertical Seismic Profiling.
Table 12--Estimates of Total Number of Takes by Level B Harassment and Number of Sea Otters Taken by Year
[or project season]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2019 (Season 2020 (Season 2021 (Season 2022 (Season 2023 (Season
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Total
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Takes by year (season).................................. 903.98 5.80 751.34 1.48 0.00 1,662.60
% takes by year (season)................................ 54 0 45 0 0 ..............
No. of otters taken..................................... 16.65 0.89 75.28 0.23 0.00 93.12
% otters taken by year (season)......................... 18 1 81 0 0 ..............
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Critical Assumptions
In order to conduct this analysis and estimate the potential amount
of take, several critical assumptions were made. Here we discuss these
assumptions, the potential sources of bias or error inherent in them,
and their effects on the analysis. Take by harassment is equated herein
with exposure to noise meeting or exceeding the specified criteria. We
assume all otters exposed to these noise levels will exhibit behavioral
responses that indicate harassment or disturbance. There are likely to
be a proportion of animals that respond in ways that indicate some
level of disturbance but do not experience significant biological
consequences. A correction factor was not applied. This will result in
overestimation in take calculations from exposure to underwater noise
and underestimation of take from all other sources. The net effect is
unknown.
Our estimates do not account for variable responses by age and sex.
Females with dependent pups and with pups that have recently weaned are
physiologically the most sensitive (Thometz et al. 2014) and most
likely to experience take from disturbance. There is not enough
information on composition of the Cook Inlet sea otter population in
the applicant's project area to incorporate individual variability
based on age and sex or to predict its influence on take estimates. We
therefore assume the response rates are uniform throughout the
population. The degree of over- or under-estimation of take is unknown.
The estimates of behavioral response presented here do not account
for the individual movements of animals away from the project area due
to avoidance or habituation. Our assessment assumes animals remain
stationary; i.e., density does not change. There is not enough
information about the movement of sea otters in response to specific
disturbances to refine these assumptions. For instance, on average, a
single otter is expected to experience 18 instances of Level B take and
another otter will experience 3 instances of Level A take. While otters
do have restricted movements and smaller home ranges than other marine
mammals and, therefore, are likely to be exposed to sound during
multiple days of work, it is unlikely that any single otter will
[[Page 10243]]
continue to respond in the same manner. The otter will either depart
from the area and return after activities are complete, or it will
habituate to the disturbance and will no longer experience take.
However, we have no data to adjust for the likelihood of departure or
habituation. This situation is likely to result in overestimation of
take.
We do not account for an otter's time at the water's surface where
sound attenuates faster than in deeper water. The average dive time of
a northern sea otter is only 85 to 149 seconds (Bodkin et al. 2004;
Wolt et al. 2012). Wolt et al. (2012) found Prince William Sound sea
otters average 8.6 dives per feeding bout, and when multiplied by the
average dive time (149 sec), the average total time a sea otter spends
underwater during a feeding bout is about 21 minutes. Bodkin et al.
(2007) found the overall average activity budget (proportion of 24-hour
day) spent foraging and diving was 0.48 (11.4 hours per day), and 0.52
nondiving time (12.5 hours per day). Gelatt et al. (2002) found that
the percent time foraging ranged from 21 percent for females with very
young (less than 3 weeks of age) dependent pups to 52 percent for
females with old (greater than or equal to 10 weeks of age) pups.
Therefore, although exposure to underwater sound during a single dive
is limited, accumulation of exposure over time is expected. Our
assessment will cause some overestimation in this regard.
We also assume that the mitigation measures presented will be
effective for avoiding some level of take. However, additional
information is needed to quantify the effectiveness of mitigation. The
monitoring and reporting in this proposed ITR will help fill this
information need in the future, but for this suite of proposed
activities, no adjustments were made to estimate the number of takes
that will be avoided by applying effective mitigation measures. This
scenario leads to overestimation in calculation of take.
The current project description represents the applicant's best
expectation of how, where, and when work will proceed. We expect that
the current project description is an accurate depiction of the work
that will be conducted. Details provided in future applications for
LOAs under these proposed regulations must provide accurate project
details, which may include minor changes from those described here.
Minor changes to the details of the proposed activities, such as a
change of the specific vessels or a change in the start date of a
specific activity, are not expected to change the overall estimates of
take. In all cases, the most accurate information about the project and
the specific estimation parameters will be used, along with methods
that are consistent with those described here, to calculate the effects
of the activities and to ensure that the effects remain concordant with
the determinations of this proposed rulemaking. Larger project changes
that will alter the findings proposed here will not be considered as
part of this proposed ITR.
Potential Impacts on Sea Otter Stocks
The estimated number of takes by Level B harassment is 1,663
instances of take of 93 otters due to behavioral responses or TTS
associated with noise exposure. Among otters from the southwest stock,
410 Level B takes of 9 otters are expected; and among the southcentral
stock, 1,253 takes of 84 otters from Level B harassment are expected.
The estimated number of takes by Level A harassment is three instances
of take of a single otter due to behavioral responses or PTS associated
with noise exposure. This otter and is expected to belong to the
southcentral stock. Combined, the expected number of Level A and Level
B takes is 410 takes of 9 otters from the southwest stock and 1,256
takes of 85 otters from the southcentral stock.
These levels represent a small proportion relative to the most
recent stock abundance estimates for the sea otter. Take of 9 animals
is 0.02 percent of the best available estimate of the current
population size of 45,064 animals in the southwest stock (USFWS 2014a)
(9/45,064 [ap] 0.0002). Take of 85 is about 0.5 percent of the 18,297
animals in the southcentral stock (USFWS 2014b) (85/18,297 [ap]
0.00465).
Sea otters exposed to sound produced by the project are likely to
respond with temporary behavioral modification or displacement. Project
activities could temporarily interrupt the feeding, resting, and
movement of sea otters. Because activities will occur during a limited
amount of time and in a localized region, the impacts associated with
the project are likewise temporary and localized. The anticipated
effects are primarily short-term behavioral reactions and displacement
of sea otters near active operations.
Animals that encounter the proposed activities may exert more
energy than they would otherwise due to temporary cessation of feeding,
increased vigilance, and retreat from the project area. We expect that
affected sea otters would tolerate this exertion without measurable
effects on health or reproduction. Most of the anticipated takes would
be due to short-term Level B harassment in the form of TTS, startling
reactions, or temporary displacement. Three instances of Level A take
are expected to occur due to PTS. The effects of PTS in sea otters are
unknown.
With the adoption of the measures proposed in the applicant's
mitigation and monitoring plan and required by this proposed ITR, the
amount and likelihood of Level A and Level B take will be reduced. The
number of otters affected will be small relative to the stocks, and the
overall effect on the stocks is expected to be negligible.
Potential Impacts on Subsistence Uses
The proposed activities will occur near marine subsistence harvest
areas used by Alaska Natives from the villages of Ninilchik, Salamatof,
Tyonek, Nanwalek, Seldovia, and Port Graham. Between 2013 and 2018,
approximately 491 sea otters were harvested for subsistence use from
Cook Inlet, averaging 98 per year. The large majority were taken in
Kachemak Bay. Harvest occurs year-round, but peaks in April and May,
with about 40 percent of the total taken at that time. February and
March are also high harvest periods, with about 10 percent of the total
annual harvest occurring in each of those months. The proposed project
area will avoid Kachemak Bay and therefore avoid significant overlap
with subsistence harvest areas. The applicant's activities will not
preclude access to hunting areas or interfere in any way with
individuals wishing to hunt. Vessels, aircraft, and project noise may
displace otters, resulting in changes to availability of otters for
subsistence use during the project period. Otters may be more vigilant
during periods of disturbance, which could affect hunting success
rates. The applicant will coordinate with Alaska Native villages and
Tribal organizations to identify and avoid potential conflicts. If any
conflicts are identified, the applicant will develop a POC specifying
the particular steps that will be taken to address any effects the
project might have on subsistence harvest.
Findings
Small Numbers
For small numbers analyses, the statute and legislative history do
not expressly require a specific type of numerical analysis, leaving
the determination of ``small'' to the agency's discretion. In this
case, we propose a finding that the proposed project may result in
approximately 1,666 takes of 94 otters, of which, 410 takes of 9
[[Page 10244]]
animals will be from the southwest stock and 1,256 takes of 85 otters
will be from the southcentral stock. These numbers represent less than
1 percent of each stock (USFWS 2014a,b). Based on these numbers, we
propose a finding that the applicant's proposed activities will take,
by harassment, only a small number of animals.
Negligible Impact
We propose a finding that any incidental take by harassment
resulting from the proposed project cannot be reasonably expected to,
and is not reasonably likely to, adversely affect the sea otter through
effects on annual rates of recruitment or survival and would,
therefore, have no more than a negligible impact on the species or
stocks. In making this finding, we considered the best available
scientific information, including: the biological and behavioral
characteristics of the species, the most recent information on species
distribution and abundance within the area of the specified activities,
the potential sources of disturbance caused by the project, and the
potential responses of animals to this disturbance. In addition, we
reviewed material supplied by the applicant, other operators in Alaska,
our files and datasets, published reference materials, and species
experts.
Sea otters are likely to respond to proposed activities with
temporary behavioral modification or displacement. These reactions are
unlikely to have consequences for the health, reproduction, or survival
of most affected animals. Most animals will respond to disturbance by
moving away from the source, which may cause temporary interruption of
foraging, resting, or other natural behaviors. Affected animals are
expected to resume normal behaviors soon after exposure, with no
lasting consequences. Some animals may exhibit more severe responses
typical of Level B harassment, such as fleeing, ceasing feeding, or
flushing from a haulout. These responses could have significant
biological impacts for affected individuals. One otter may experience
Level A take from PTS. The effects to this individual are unknown, but
lasting effects to survival and reproduction for this individual are
possible. Thus, although the proposed activities may result in
approximately 410 takes of 9 animals from the southwest stock and 1,256
takes of 85 otters from the southcentral stock, we do not expect this
level of harassment to affect annual rates of recruitment or survival
or result in adverse effects on the species or stocks.
Our proposed finding of negligible impact applies to incidental
take associated with the proposed activities as mitigated by the
avoidance and minimization measures identified in the applicant's
mitigation and monitoring plan. Minimum flight altitudes will help
operators avoid take from exposure to aircraft noise. Protected species
observers and procedures implemented by PSOs will limit Level A take
during seismic work and pile driving. Collision-avoidance measures,
including speed reductions when otters are present, will ensure that
boat strikes are unlikely. These mitigation measures are designed to
minimize interactions with and impacts to sea otters and, together with
the monitoring and reporting procedures, are required for the validity
of our finding and are a necessary component of the proposed ITR. For
these reasons, we propose a finding that the proposed activities will
have a negligible impact on sea otters.
Impact on Subsistence
We propose a finding that the anticipated harassment caused by the
applicant's activities would not have an unmitigable adverse impact on
the availability of sea otters for taking for subsistence uses. In
making this finding, we considered the timing and location of the
proposed activities and the timing and location of subsistence harvest
activities in the area of the proposed project. We also considered the
applicant's consultation with subsistence communities, proposed
measures for avoiding impacts to subsistence harvest, and commitment to
development of a POC, should any adverse impacts be identified.
Request for Public Comments
If you wish to comment on this proposed regulation, the associated
draft environmental assessment, or the information collection, you may
submit your comments by any of the methods described in ADDRESSES.
Please identify if you are commenting on the proposed regulation, draft
environmental assessment, or the information collection, make your
comments as specific as possible, confine them to issues pertinent to
the proposed regulation, and explain the reason for any changes you
recommend. Where possible, your comments should reference the specific
section or paragraph that you are addressing. The Service will consider
all comments that are received by the close of the comment period (see
DATES).
Comments, including names and street addresses of respondents, will
become part of the administrative record. Before including your
address, telephone number, email address, or other personal identifying
information in your comment, be advised that your entire comment,
including your personal identifying information, may be made publicly
available at any time. While you can ask us in your comments to
withhold from public review your personal identifying information, we
cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so.
Required Determinations
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
We have prepared a draft environmental assessment (EA) in
accordance with the NEPA (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.). We have
preliminarily concluded that issuance of an incidental take regulation
for the nonlethal, incidental, unintentional take by harassment of
small numbers of sea otters in Alaska during activities conducted by
Hilcorp, Harvest, and AGDC in 2019 to 2024 would not significantly
affect the quality of the human environment and that the preparation of
an environmental impact statement is not required by section 102(2) of
NEPA or its implementing regulations. A copy of the EA can be obtained
from the locations described in ADDRESSES.
Endangered Species Act (ESA)
Under the ESA, all Federal agencies are required to ensure the
actions they authorize are not likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of any threatened or endangered species or result in
destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat. The southwest
DPS of sea otters is listed as threatened under the ESA at 50 CFR
17.11(h) (70 FR 46366, August 9, 2005). The proposed activities will
occur within designated critical habitat found at 50 CFR 17.95(a).
Prior to issuance of a final ITR, if warranted, the Service will
complete intra-Service consultation under section 7 of the ESA on our
proposed issuance of an ITR, which will consider whether the effects of
the proposed project will adversely affect sea otters or adversely
modify their critical habitat. These evaluations and findings will be
made available on the Service's website and at https://www.regulations.gov.
Regulatory Planning and Review
Executive Order 12866 provides that the Office of Information and
Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) in the Office of Management and Budget will
review all significant rules. OIRA has determined that this rule is not
significant.
[[Page 10245]]
Executive Order 13563 reaffirms the principles of Executive Order
12866 while calling for improvements in the nation's regulatory system
to promote predictability, to reduce uncertainty, and to use the best,
most innovative, and least burdensome tools for achieving regulatory
ends. The executive order directs agencies to consider regulatory
approaches that reduce burdens and maintain flexibility and freedom of
choice for the public where these approaches are relevant, feasible,
and consistent with regulatory objectives. Executive Order 13563
emphasizes further that regulations must be based on the best available
science and that the rulemaking process must allow for public
participation and an open exchange of ideas. We have developed this
rule in a manner consistent with these requirements.
OIRA bases its determination upon the following four criteria: (a)
Whether the rule will have an annual effect of $100 million or more on
the economy or adversely affect an economic sector, productivity, jobs,
the environment, or other units of the government; (b) Whether the rule
will create inconsistencies with other Federal agencies' actions; (c)
Whether the rule will materially affect entitlements, grants, user
fees, loan programs, or the rights and obligations of their recipients;
(d) Whether the rule raises novel legal or policy issues.
Expenses will be related to, but not necessarily limited to: The
development of applications for LOAs; monitoring, recordkeeping, and
reporting activities conducted during oil and gas operations;
development of activity- and species-specific marine mammal monitoring
and mitigation plans; and coordination with Alaska Natives to minimize
effects of operations on subsistence hunting. Realistically, costs of
compliance with this proposed rule are minimal in comparison to those
related to actual oil and gas exploration, development, production, and
transport operations. The actual costs to develop the petition for
promulgation of regulations and LOA requests probably do not exceed
$200,000 per year, short of the ``major rule'' threshold that would
require preparation of a regulatory impact analysis. As is presently
the case, profits will accrue to the applicant; royalties and taxes
will accrue to the Government; and the rule will have little or no
impact on decisions by the applicant to relinquish tracts and write off
bonus payments.
Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act
We have determined that this rule is not a major rule under 5
U.S.C. 804(2), the Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act.
The rule is also not likely to result in a major increase in costs or
prices for consumers, individual industries, or government agencies or
have significant adverse effects on competition, employment,
productivity, innovation, or on the ability of United States-based
enterprises to compete with foreign-based enterprises in domestic or
export markets.
Regulatory Flexibility Act
We have also determined that this rule will not have a significant
economic effect on a substantial number of small entities under the
Regulatory Flexibility Act (5 U.S.C. 601 et seq.). Companies and their
contractors conducting exploration, development, production, and
transportation of oil and gas in Alaska have been identified as the
only likely applicants under the regulations, and these potential
applicants have not been identified as small businesses. Therefore,
neither a Regulatory Flexibility Analysis nor a Small Entity Compliance
Guide is required.
Takings Implications
This rule does not have takings implications under Executive Order
12630 because it authorizes the nonlethal, incidental, but not
intentional, take of sea otters by oil and gas industry companies and,
thereby, exempts these companies from civil and criminal liability as
long as they operate in compliance with the terms of their LOAs.
Therefore, a takings implications assessment is not required.
Federalism Effects
This rule does not contain policies with Federalism implications
sufficient to warrant preparation of a Federalism Assessment under
Executive Order 13132. The MMPA gives the Service the authority and
responsibility to protect sea otters.
Unfunded Mandates Reform Act
In accordance with the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (2 U.S.C. 1501
et seq.), this rule will not ``significantly or uniquely'' affect small
governments. A Small Government Agency Plan is not required. The
Service has determined and certifies pursuant to the Unfunded Mandates
Reform Act that this rulemaking will not impose a cost of $100 million
or more in any given year on local or State governments or private
entities. This rule will not produce a Federal mandate of $100 million
or greater in any year, i.e., it is not a ``significant regulatory
action'' under the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act.
Government-to-Government Relationship With Native American Tribal
Governments
It is our responsibility to communicate and work directly on a
Government-to-Government basis with federally recognized Alaska Native
tribes and corporations in developing programs for healthy ecosystems.
We seek their full and meaningful participation in evaluating and
addressing conservation concerns for protected species. It is our goal
to remain sensitive to Alaska Native culture, and to make information
available to Alaska Natives. Our efforts are guided by the following
policies and directives: (1) The Native American Policy of the Service
(January 20, 2016); (2) the Alaska Native Relations Policy (currently
in draft form); (3) Executive Order 13175 (January 9, 2000); (4)
Department of the Interior Secretarial Orders 3206 (June 5, 1997), 3225
(January 19, 2001), 3317 (December 1, 2011), and 3342 (October 21,
2016); (5) the Alaska Government-to-Government Policy (a departmental
memorandum issued January 18, 2001); and (6) the Department of the
Interior's policies on consultation with Alaska Native tribes and
organizations.
We have evaluated possible effects of the proposed activities on
federally recognized Alaska Native Tribes and corporations. Through the
ITR process identified in the MMPA, the applicant has presented a
communication process, culminating in a POC if needed, with the Native
organizations and communities most likely to be affected by their work.
The applicant has engaged these groups in informational communications.
We invite continued discussion about the proposed ITR.
Civil Justice Reform
The Departmental Solicitor's Office has determined that this
regulation does not unduly burden the judicial system and meets the
applicable standards provided in sections 3(a) and 3(b)(2) of Executive
Order 12988.
Paperwork Reduction Act
This rule requests a revision to an existing information
collection. All information collections require approval under the
Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 3501 et seq.). We may not
conduct or sponsor, and you are not required to respond to, a
collection of information unless it displays a
[[Page 10246]]
currently valid OMB control number. The OMB previously reviewed and
approved the information collection requirements associated with
incidental take of marine mammals in the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas and
assigned OMB Control Number 1018-0070 (expires July 31, 2020).
The revised requirements reporting and/or recordkeeping
requirements identified below require approval by OMB:
(1) Remove references to 50 CFR part 18, subpart I (expired); and
(2) Add references to 50 CFR part 18, subpart K.
Title of Collection: Incidental Take of Marine Mammals During
Specified Activities, 50 CFR 18.27 and 50 CFR 18, Subparts J and K.
OMB Control Number: 1018-0070.
Form Numbers: None.
Type of Review: Revision of a currently approved collection.
Respondents/Affected Public: Oil and gas industry representatives,
including applicants for ITRs and LOAs, operations managers, and
environmental compliance personnel.
Total Estimated Number of Annual Respondents: 84.
Total Estimated Number of Annual Responses: 356.
Estimated Completion Time per Response: Varies from 1.5 hours to
150 hours, depending on activity.
Total Estimated Number of Annual Burden Hours: 1,800.
Respondent's Obligation: Required to obtain or retain a benefit.
Frequency of Collection: On occasion.
Total Estimated Annual Nonhour Burden Cost: $200,000.
As part of our continuing effort to reduce paperwork and respondent
burdens, we invite the public and other Federal agencies to comment on
any aspect of this information collection, including:
(1) Whether or not the collection of information is necessary,
including whether or not the information will have practical utility;
(2) The accuracy of our estimate of the burden for this collection
of information;
(3) Ways to enhance the quality, utility, and clarity of the
information to be collected; and
(4) Ways to minimize the burden of the collection of information on
respondents.
Send your comments and suggestions on this information collection
by the date indicated in DATES to the Desk Officer for the Department
of the Interior at OMB-OIRA at (202) 395-5806 (fax) or
OIRA_Submission@omb.eop.gov (email). You may view the information
collection request(s) at http://www.reginfo.gov/public/do/PRAMain.
Please provide a copy of your comments to the Service Information
Collection Clearance Officer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 5275
Leesburg Pike, MS: BPHC, Falls Church, VA 22041-3803 (mail); or
Info_Coll@fws.gov (email). Please reference OMB Control Number 1018-
0070 in the subject line of your comments.
Energy Effects
Executive Order 13211 requires agencies to prepare Statements of
Energy Effects when undertaking certain actions. This rule provides
exceptions from the taking prohibitions of the MMPA for entities
engaged in the exploration of oil and gas in Cook Inlet, Alaska. By
providing certainty regarding compliance with the MMPA, this rule will
have a positive effect on the oil and gas industry and its activities.
Although the rule requires applicants to take a number of actions,
these actions have been undertaken as part of oil and gas industry
operations for many years as part of similar past regulations in
Alaska. Therefore, this rule is not expected to significantly affect
energy supplies, distribution, or use and does not constitute a
significant energy action. No Statement of Energy Effects is required.
References
For a list of the references cited in this proposed rule, see
Docket No. FWS-R7-ES-2019-0012, available at https://www.regulations.gov.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 18
Administrative practice and procedure, Alaska, Imports, Indians,
Marine mammals, Oil and gas exploration, Reporting and recordkeeping
requirements, Transportation.
Proposed Regulation Promulgation
For the reasons set forth in the preamble, the Service proposes to
amend part 18, subchapter B of chapter 1, title 50 of the Code of
Federal Regulations as set forth below.
PART 18--MARINE MAMMALS
0
1. The authority citation of 50 CFR part 18 continues to read as
follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361 et seq.
0
2. Add subpart K to read as follows:
Subpart K--Nonlethal Taking of Marine Mammals Incidental to Oil and
Gas Activities in Cook Inlet, Alaska
Sec.
18.130 Specified activities covered by this subpart.
18.131 Specified geographic region where this subpart applies.
18.132 Dates this subpart is in effect.
18.133 Authorized take allowed under a Letter of Authorization
(LOA).
18.134 Procedure to obtain a Letter of Authorization (LOA).
18.135 How the Service will evaluate a request for a Letter of
Authorization (LOA).
18.136 Prohibited take under a Letter of Authorization (LOA).
18.137 Mitigation.
18.138 Monitoring.
18.139 Reporting requirements.
18.140 Measures to reduce impacts to subsistence users.
18.141 Information collection requirements.
Sec. 18.130 Specified activities covered by this subpart.
Regulations in this subpart apply to the nonlethal incidental, but
not intentional, take, as defined in Sec. 18.3 and under section 3 of
the Marine Mammal Protection Act (16 U.S.C. 1371 et seq.), of small
numbers of northern sea otters (Enhydra lutris kenyoni; hereafter
``otter,'' ``otters,'' or ``sea otters'') by Hilcorp Alaska, LLC,
Harvest Alaska, LLC, and the Alaska Gasline Development Corporation
while engaged in activities associated with or in support of oil and
gas exploration, development, production, and transportation in Cook
Inlet, Alaska.
Sec. 18.131 Specified geographic region where this subpart applies.
(a) The specified geographic region is Cook Inlet, Alaska, south of
a line from the Susitna River Delta to Point Possession (approximately
61[deg]15'54'' N, 150[deg]41'07'' W, to 61[deg]02'19'' N,
150[deg]23'48'' W, WGS 1984) and north of a line from Rocky Cove to
Coal Cove (approximately 59[deg]25'56'' N, 153[deg]44'25'' W and
59[deg]23'48'' N, 151[deg]54'28'' W, WGS 1984), excluding Ursus Cove,
Iniskin Bay, Iliamna Bay, and Tuxedni Bay.
(b) The geographic area of these incidental take regulations (ITRs)
includes all Alaska State waters and Outer Continental Shelf Federal
waters within this area as well as all adjacent rivers, estuaries, and
coastal lands where sea otters may occur, except for those areas
explicitly excluded in paragraph (a) of this section.
(c) Map of the Cook Inlet ITR region follows:
[[Page 10247]]
[GRAPHIC] [TIFF OMITTED] TP19MR19.000
Sec. 18.132 Dates this subpart is in effect.
Regulations in this subpart are effective from [EFFECTIVE DATE OF
THE FINAL RULE] to [DATE 5 YEARS AFTER THE EFFECTIVE DATE OF THE FINAL
RULE].
Sec. 18.133 Authorized take allowed under a Letter of Authorization
(LOA).
(a) To incidentally take marine mammals pursuant to this subpart,
Hilcorp Alaska, LLC, Harvest Alaska, LLC, or the Alaska Gasline
Development Corporation (hereafter ``the applicant'') must apply for
and obtain an LOA in accordance with Sec. Sec. 18.27(f) and 18.134.
(b) An LOA allows for the nonlethal, incidental, but not
intentional take by harassment of sea otters during activities
specified in Sec. 18.130 within the Cook Inlet ITR region described in
Sec. 18.131.
(c) Each LOA will set forth:
(1) Permissible methods of incidental take;
(2) Means of effecting the least practicable adverse impact (i.e.,
mitigation) on the species, its habitat, and the availability of the
species for subsistence uses; and
(3) Requirements for monitoring and reporting.
(d) Issuance of the LOA(s) must be based on a determination that
the level of take will be consistent with the findings made for the
total allowable take under this subpart.
Sec. 18.134 Procedure to obtain a Letter of Authorization (LOA).
(a) The applicant must be a U.S. citizen as defined in Sec.
18.27(c) and must submit the request for authorization to the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service (Service) Alaska Region Marine Mammals Management
Office (MMM), MS 341, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, Alaska 99503, at
least 90 days prior to the start of the proposed activity.
(b) The request for an LOA must comply with the requirements set
forth in Sec. Sec. 18.137 through 18.139 and must include the
following information:
(1) A plan of operations that describes in detail the proposed
activity (type of project, methods, and types and numbers of equipment
and personnel, etc.), the dates and duration of the activity, and the
specific locations of and areas affected by the activity. Changes to
the proposed project without prior authorization may invalidate an LOA.
(2) A site-specific marine mammal monitoring and mitigation plan to
monitor and mitigate the effects of the activity on sea otters.
(3) An assessment of potential effects of the proposed activity on
subsistence hunting of sea otters.
(i) The applicant must communicate with potentially affected
subsistence communities along the Cook Inlet coast and appropriate
subsistence user organizations to discuss the location, timing, and
methods of proposed activities and identify any potential conflicts
with subsistence hunting activities.
(ii) The applicant must specifically inquire of relevant
communities and organizations if the proposed activity will interfere
with the availability of sea otters for the subsistence use of those
groups.
(iii) The applicant must include documentation of consultations
with potentially affected user groups. Documentation must include a
list of
[[Page 10248]]
persons contacted, a summary of any concerns identified by community
members and hunter organizations, and the applicant's responses to
identified concerns.
(iv) If any concerns regarding effects of the activity on sea otter
subsistence harvest are identified, the applicant will provide to the
Service a Plan of Cooperation (POC) with specific steps for addressing
those concerns.
Sec. 18.135 How the Service will evaluate a request for a Letter of
Authorization (LOA).
(a) The Service will evaluate each request for an LOA based on the
specific activity and the specific geographic location. We will
determine whether the level of activity identified in the request is
commensurate with the analysis and findings made for this subpart
regarding the number of animals likely to be taken and evaluate whether
there will be a negligible impact on sea otters or an adverse impact on
the availability of sea otters for subsistence uses. Depending on the
results of the evaluation, we may grant the authorization, add further
conditions, or deny the authorization.
(b) Once issued, the Service may withdraw or suspend an LOA if the
project activity is modified in a way that undermines the results of
the previous evaluation, if the conditions of the regulations in this
subpart are not being substantially complied with, or if the taking
allowed is or may be having more than a negligible impact on the
affected stock of sea otters or an unmitigable adverse impact on the
availability of sea otters for subsistence uses.
(c) The Service will make decisions concerning withdrawals of an
LOA, either on an individual or class basis, only after notice and
opportunity for public comment in accordance with Sec. 18.27(f)(5).
The requirement for notice and public comment will not apply should we
determine that an emergency exists that poses a significant risk to the
well-being of the species or stocks of sea otters.
Sec. 18.136 Prohibited take under a Letter of Authorization (LOA).
(a) Except as otherwise provided in this subpart, prohibited taking
is described in Sec. 18.11 as well as: Intentional take, lethal
incidental take of sea otters, and any take that fails to comply with
this subpart or with the terms and conditions of an LOA.
(b) If project activities cause unauthorized take, the applicant
must take the following actions:
(1) Cease activities immediately (or reduce activities to the
minimum level necessary to maintain safety) and report the details of
the incident to the Service MMM within 48 hours; and
(2) Suspend further activities until the Service has reviewed the
circumstances, determined whether additional mitigation measures are
necessary to avoid further unauthorized taking, and notified the
applicant that it may resume project activities.
Sec. 18.137 Mitigation.
(a) Mitigation measures for all LOAs. The applicant, including all
personnel operating under the applicant's authority (or ``operators,''
including contractors, subcontractors, and representatives) must
undertake the following activities to avoid and minimize take of sea
otters by harassment.
(1) Implement policies and procedures to avoid interactions with
and minimize to the greatest extent practicable adverse impacts on sea
otters, their habitat, and the availability of these marine mammals for
subsistence uses.
(2) Develop avoidance and minimization policies and procedures, in
cooperation with the Service, that include temporal or spatial activity
restrictions to be used in response to the presence of sea otters
engaged in a biologically significant activity (e.g., resting, feeding,
hauling out, mating, or nursing).
(3) Cooperate with the Service's MMM Office and other designated
Federal, State, and local agencies to monitor and mitigate the impacts
of oil and gas industry activities on sea otters.
(4) Allow Service personnel or the Service's designated
representative to board project vessels or visit project work sites for
the purpose of monitoring impacts to sea otters and subsistence uses of
sea otters at any time throughout project activities so long as it is
safe to do so.
(5) Designate trained and qualified protected species observers
(PSOs) to monitor for the presence of sea otters, initiate mitigation
measures, and monitor, record, and report the effects of the activities
on sea otters. The applicant is responsible for providing training to
PSOs to carry out mitigation and monitoring.
(6) Have an approved mitigation and monitoring plan on file with
the Service MMM and onsite that includes the following information:
(i) The type of activity and where and when the activity will occur
(i.e., a summary of the plan of operation);
(ii) Personnel training policies, procedures, and materials;
(iii) Site-specific sea otter interaction risk evaluation and
mitigation measures;
(iv) Sea otter avoidance and encounter procedures; and
(v) Sea otter observation and reporting procedures.
(7) Contact affected subsistence communities and hunter
organizations to identify any potential conflicts that may be caused by
the proposed activities and provide the Service documentation of
communications as described in Sec. 18.134.
(b) Mitigation measures for in-water noise-generating work. The
applicant must carry out the following measures:
(1) Mitigation zones. Establish mitigation zones for project
activities that generate underwater sound levels >=160 decibels (dB)
between 125 hertz (Hz) and 38 kilohertz (kHz) (hereafter ``noise-
generating work'').
(i) All dB levels are referenced to 1 [micro]Pa for underwater
sound. All dB levels herein are dBRMS unless otherwise
noted; dBRMS refers to the root-mean-squared dB level, the
square root of the average of the squared sound pressure level,
typically measured over 1 second.
(ii) Mitigation zones must include all in-water areas where work-
related sound received by sea otters will match the levels and
frequencies in paragraph (b)(1) of this section. Mitigation zones will
be designated as follows:
(A) An Exclusion Zone (EZ) will be established throughout all areas
where sea otters may be exposed to sound levels capable of causing
Level A take as shown in the table in paragraph (b)(1)(iii) of this
section.
(B) The Safety Zone (SZ) is an area larger than the EZ and will
include all areas within which sea otters may be exposed to noise
levels that will likely result in Level B take as shown in the table in
paragraph (b)(1)(iii) of this section.
(C) Both the EZ and SZ will be centered on the sound source. The
method of estimation and minimum radius of each zone will be specified
in any LOA issued under Sec. 18.135 and will be based on the best
available science.
(iii) Summary of acoustic exposure thresholds for take of sea
otters from underwater sound in the frequency range 125 Hz-32 kHz:
[[Page 10249]]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Injury (Level A) threshold \1\ Disturbance (Level B) threshold
Marine mammals ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Impulsive Non-impulsive All
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sea otters....................... 232 dB peak; 203; 219 dB SELcum...... 160 dBRMS.
dB SELcum.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
\1\ Based on acoustic criteria for otariid pinnipeds from the National Marine Fisheries Service. Sound source
types are separated into impulsive (e.g., seismic, pipe driving, sub-bottom profiler) and non-impulsive (tugs,
towing rigs, drilling, water jet, hydraulic grinder) and require estimation of the distance to the peak
received sound pressure level (peak) and 24-hr cumulative sound exposure level (SELcum).
(2) Monitoring. Designate trained and qualified PSOs or
``observers'' to monitor for the presence of sea otters in mitigation
zones, initiate mitigation measures, and record and report the effects
of project work on otters for all noise-generating work.
(3) Mitigation measures for sea otters in mitigation zones. The
following actions will be taken in response to otters in mitigation
zones:
(i) Sea otters that are under no visible distress within the SZ
must be monitored continuously. Power down, shut down, or maneuver away
from the sea otter if practicable to reduce sound received by the
animal. Maintain 100 m (301 ft) separation distance whenever possible.
Exposures in this zone are counted as one Level B take per animal per
day.
(ii) When sea otters are observed within or approaching the EZ,
noise-generating work as defined in paragraph (b)(1) of this section
must be immediately shut down or powered down to reduce the size of the
zone sufficiently to exclude the animal from the zone. Vessel speed or
course may be altered to achieve the same task. Exposures in this zone
are counted as one Level A take per animal per day.
(iii) When sea otters are observed in visible distress (for
example, vocalizing, repeatedly spy-hopping, or fleeing), noise-
generating work as defined in paragraph (b)(1) of this section must be
immediately shut down or powered down to reduce the size of the zone
sufficiently to exclude the animal from the zone.
(iv) Following a shutdown, the noise-generating activity will not
resume until the sea otter has cleared the EZ. The animal will be
considered to have cleared the EZ if it is visually observed to have
left the EZ or has not been seen within the EZ for 30 minutes or
longer.
(4) Ramp-up procedures. Prior to noise-generating work, a ``ramp-
up'' procedure must be used to increase the levels of underwater sound
from noise-generating work at a gradual rate.
(i) Seismic surveys. A ramp-up will be used at the initial start of
airgun operations and prior to restarting after any period greater than
10 minutes without airgun operations, including a power-down or
shutdown event (described in paragraphs (b)(6) and (7) of this
section). During geophysical work, the number and total volume of
airguns will be increased incrementally until the full volume is
achieved. The rate of ramp-up will be no more than 6 dB per 5-minute
period. Ramp-up will begin with the smallest gun in the array that is
being used for all airgun array configurations. During the ramp-up, the
applicable mitigation zones (based on type of airgun and sound levels
produced) must be maintained. If the complete applicable EZ has not
been visible for at least 30 minutes prior to the start of operations,
ramp-up will not start unless a 10-in\3\ mitigation gun has been
operating during the interruption of seismic survey operations. It will
not be permissible to ramp up from a complete shutdown in thick fog or
at other times when the outer part of the applicable EZ is not visible,
unless the mitigation gun has been operating.
(ii) Pile/pipe driving. A ramp-up of the hammering will precede
each day's pipe/pile driving activities or if pipe/pile driving has
ceased for more than 1 hour. The EZ will be cleared 30 minutes prior to
a ramp-up to ensure no sea otters are within or entering the EZ.
Initial hammering starts will not begin during periods of poor
visibility (e.g., night, fog, wind) when the entire EZ is not visible.
The ramp-up procedure involves initially starting with three soft
strikes at 40 percent energy, followed by a 1-minute waiting period
followed by two subsequent three-strike sets. Monitoring will occur
during all hammering sessions.
(iii) All activities. Any shutdown due to sea otters sighted within
the EZ must be followed by a 30-minute all-clear period and then a
standard full ramp-up. Any shutdown for other reasons resulting in the
cessation of the sound source for a period greater than 30 minutes must
also be followed by full ramp-up procedures. If otters are observed
during a ramp-up effort or prior to startup, a PSO must record the
observation and monitor the animal's position until it moves out of
visual range. Noise-generating work may commence if, after a full and
gradual effort to ramp up the underwater sound level, the otter is
outside of the EZ and does not show signs of visible distress (for
example, vocalizing, repeatedly spy-hopping, or fleeing).
(5) Startup procedures. (i) Visual monitoring must begin at least
30 minutes prior to, and continue throughout, ramp-up efforts.
(ii) Visual monitoring must continue during all noise-generating
work occurring in daylight hours.
(6) Power-down procedures. A power-down procedure involves reducing
the volume of underwater sound generated to prevent an otter from
entering the EZ.
(i) Whenever a sea otter is detected outside the EZ and, based on
its position and motion relative to the noise-generating work, appears
likely to enter the EZ but has not yet done so, operators may reduce
power to noise-generating equipment as an alternative to a shutdown.
(ii) Whenever a sea otter is detected in the SZ, an operator may
power down when practicable to reduce Level B take.
(iii) During a power-down of seismic work, the number of airguns in
use may be reduced, such that the EZ is reduced, making the sea otters
unlikely to enter the EZ. A mitigation airgun (airgun of small volume
such as the 10-in\3\ gun) will be operated continuously during a power-
down of seismic work.
(iv) After a power down, noise-generating work will not resume
until the sea otter has cleared the applicable EZ. The animal will be
considered to have cleared the applicable zone if it is visually
observed to have left the EZ and has not been seen within the zone for
30 minutes.
(7) Shutdown procedure. A shutdown occurs when all noise-generating
work is suspended.
(i) Noise-generating work will be shut down completely if a sea
otter enters the EZ.
(ii) The shutdown procedure will be accomplished within several
seconds of the determination that a sea otter is either in or about to
enter the EZ.
(iii) Noise-generating work will not proceed until all sea otters
have cleared the EZ and the PSOs on duty are confident that no sea
otters remain within the EZ. An otter will be considered to have
cleared the EZ if it is visually observed to have left the EZ
[[Page 10250]]
or has not been seen within the zone for 30 minutes.
(iv) Visual monitoring must continue for 30 minutes after use of
the acoustic source ceases or the sun sets, whichever is later.
(8) Emergency shutdown. If observations are made or credible
reports are received that one or more sea otters are within the area of
noise-generating work and are indicating acute distress associated with
the work, such as any injury due to seismic noise or persistent
vocalizations indicating separation of mother from pup, the work will
be immediately shut down and the Service contacted. Work will not be
restarted until review and approval by the Service.
(c) Mitigation for all in-water construction and demolition
activity. (1) The applicant must implement a minimum EZ of a 10-m
radius around the in-water construction and demolition. If a sea otter
comes within or approaches the EZ, such operations must cease. A larger
EZ may be required for some activities, such as blasting, and will be
specified in the LOA.
(2) All in-water work along the shoreline shall be conducted during
low tide when the site is dewatered to the maximum extent practicable.
(d) Measures for vessel-based activities. (1) Vessel operators must
take every precaution to avoid harassment of sea otters when a vessel
is operating near these animals.
(2) Vessels must remain at least 500 m from rafts of otters
whenever possible.
(3) Vessels must reduce speed and maintain a distance of 100 m (328
ft) from all sea otters whenever possible.
(4) Vessels may not be operated in such a way as to separate
members of a group of sea otters from other members of the group.
(5) When weather conditions require, such as when visibility drops,
vessels must adjust speed accordingly to avoid the likelihood of injury
to sea otters.
(6) Vessels in transit and support vessels must use established
navigation channels or commonly recognized vessel traffic corridors,
and must avoid alongshore travel in shallow water (<20 m) whenever
practicable.
(7) All vessels must avoid areas of active or anticipated
subsistence hunting for sea otters as determined through community
consultations.
(8) Vessel operators must be provided written guidance for avoiding
collisions and minimizing disturbances to sea otters. Guidance will
include measures identified in paragraphs (d)(1) through (7) of this
section.
(e) Mitigation measures for aircraft activities. (1) Aircraft must
maintain a minimum altitude of 305 m (1,000 ft) to avoid unnecessary
harassment of sea otters, except during takeoff and landing, and when a
lower flight altitude is necessary for safety due to weather or
restricted visibility.
(2) Aircraft may not be operated in such a way as to separate
members of a group of sea otters from other members of the group.
(3) All aircraft must avoid areas of active or anticipated
subsistence hunting for sea otters as determined through community
consultations.
Sec. 18.138 Monitoring.
(a) Operators shall work with PSOs to apply mitigation measures,
and shall recognize the authority of PSOs, up to and including stopping
work, except where doing so poses a significant safety risk to
personnel.
(b) Duties of PSOs include watching for and identifying sea otters,
recording observation details, documenting presence in any applicable
monitoring zone, identifying and documenting potential harassment, and
working with operators to implement all appropriate mitigation
measures.
(c) A sufficient number of PSOs will be available to meet the
following criteria: 100 percent monitoring of EZs during all daytime
periods of underwater noise-generating work; a maximum of 4 consecutive
hours on watch per PSO; a maximum of approximately 12 hours on watch
per day per PSO.
(d) All PSOs will complete a training course designed to
familiarize individuals with monitoring and data collection procedures.
A field crew leader with prior experience as a sea otter observer will
supervise the PSO team. Initially, new or inexperienced PSOs will be
paired with experienced PSOs so that the quality of marine mammal
observations and data recording is kept consistent. Resumes for
candidate PSOs will be made available for the Service to review.
(e) Observers will be provided with reticule binoculars (10x42),
big-eye binoculars or spotting scopes (30x), inclinometers, and range
finders. Field guides, instructional handbooks, maps and a contact list
will also be made available.
(f) Observers will collect data using the following procedures:
(1) All data will be recorded onto a field form or database.
(2) Global positioning system data, sea state, wind force, and
weather will be collected at the beginning and end of a monitoring
period, every hour in between, at the change of an observer, and upon
sightings of sea otters.
(3) Observation records of sea otters will include date; time; the
observer's locations, heading, and speed (if moving); weather;
visibility; number of animals; group size and composition (adults/
juveniles); and the location of the animals (or distance and direction
from the observer).
(4) Observation records will also include initial behaviors of the
sea otters, descriptions of project activities and underwater sound
levels being generated, the position of sea otters relative to
applicable monitoring and mitigation zones, any mitigation measures
applied, and any apparent reactions to the project activities before
and after mitigation.
(5) For all otters in or near a mitigation zone, observers will
record the distance from the vessel to the sea otter upon initial
observation, the duration of the encounter, and the distance at last
observation in order to monitor cumulative sound exposures.
(6) Observers will note any instances of animals lingering close to
or traveling with vessels for prolonged periods of time.
Sec. 18.139 Reporting requirements.
(a) Operators must notify the Service at least 48 hours prior to
commencement of activities.
(b) Weekly reports will be submitted to the Service during in-water
seismic activities. The reports will summarize project activities,
monitoring efforts conducted by PSOs, the number of sea otters
detected, the number exposed to sound levels greater than 160 dB, and
descriptions of all behavioral reactions of sea otters to project
activities.
(c) Monthly reports will be submitted to the Service MMM for all
months during which noise-generating work takes place. The monthly
report will contain and summarize the following information: Dates,
times, weather, and sea conditions (including Cook Inlet marine state
and wind force) when sea otters were sighted; the number, location,
distance from the sound source, and behavior of the otters; the
associated project activities; and a description of the implementation
and effectiveness of mitigation measures with a discussion of any
specific behaviors the otters exhibited in response to mitigation.
(d) A final report will be submitted to the Service within 90 days
after the expiration of each LOA. It will include the following items:
(1) Summary of monitoring efforts (hours of monitoring, activities
monitored, number of PSOs, and, if
[[Page 10251]]
requested by the Service, the daily monitoring logs).
(2) All project activities will be described, along with any
additional work yet to be done. Factors influencing visibility and
detectability of marine mammals (e.g., sea state, number of observers,
and fog and glare) will be discussed.
(3) The report will also address factors affecting the presence and
distribution of sea otters (e.g., weather, sea state, and project
activities). An estimate will be included of the number of sea otters
exposed to noise at received levels greater than or equal to 160 dB
(based on visual observation).
(4) The report will describe changes in sea otter behavior
resulting from project activities and any specific behaviors of
interest.
(5) It will provide a discussion of the mitigation measures
implemented during project activities and their observed effectiveness
for minimizing impacts to sea otters. Sea otter observation records
will be provided to the Service in the form of electronic database or
spreadsheet files.
(6) The report will also evaluate the effectiveness of the POC (if
applicable) for preventing impacts to subsistence users of sea otters,
and it will assess any effects the operations may have had on the
availability of sea otters for subsistence harvest.
(e) All reports shall be submitted by email to
fw7_mmm_reports@fws.gov.
(f) Injured, dead, or distressed sea otters that are not associated
with project activities (e.g., animals known to be from outside the
project area, previously wounded animals, or carcasses with moderate to
advanced decomposition or scavenger damage) must be reported to the
Service within 48 hours of the discovery to either the Service MMM (1-
800-362-5148, business hours); or the Alaska SeaLife Center in Seward
(1-888-774-7325, 24 hrs.); or both. Photographs, video, location
information, or any other available documentation shall be provided to
the Service.
(g) Operators must notify the Service upon project completion or
end of the work season.
Sec. 18.140 Measures to reduce impacts to subsistence users.
(a) Prior to conducting the work, the applicant will take the
following steps to reduce potential effects on subsistence harvest of
sea otters:
(1) Avoid work in areas of known sea otter subsistence harvest;
(2) Discuss the planned activities with subsistence stakeholders
including Cook Inlet villages, traditional councils, and the Cook Inlet
Regional Citizens Advisory Council; and
(3) Identify and work to resolve concerns of stakeholders regarding
the project's effects on subsistence hunting of sea otters; and
(b) If any unresolved or ongoing concerns remain, develop a POC in
consultation with the Service and subsistence stakeholders to address
these concerns.
Sec. 18.141 Information collection requirements.
(a) We may not conduct or sponsor, and a person is not required to
respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a currently
valid Office of Management and Budget (OMB) control number. OMB has
approved the collection of information contained in this subpart and
assigned OMB control number 1018-0070. You must respond to this
information collection request to obtain a benefit pursuant to section
101(a)(5) of the Marine Mammal Protection Act. We will use the
information to:
(1) Evaluate the application and determine whether or not to issue
specific LOAs; and
(2) Monitor impacts of activities and effectiveness of mitigation
measures conducted under the LOAs.
(b) Comments regarding the burden estimate or any other aspect of
the information collection and recordkeeping requirements in this
subpart must be submitted to the Information Collection Clearance
Officer, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, at the address listed in 50
CFR 2.1.
Dated: March 12, 2019.
Andrea Travnicek,
Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks,
exercising the authority of the Assistant Secretary for Fish and
Wildlife and Parks.
[FR Doc. 2019-05127 Filed 3-18-19; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4333-15-P