[Federal Register Volume 78, Number 122 (Tuesday, June 25, 2013)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 38161-38190]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2013-15006]
[[Page 38161]]
Vol. 78
Tuesday,
No. 122
June 25, 2013
Part III
Department of the Interior
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Fish and Wildlife Service
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50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing One Distinct
Population Segment of Broad-Snouted Caiman as Endangered and a Second
as Threatened With a Special Rule; Final Rule
Federal Register / Vol. 78, No. 122 / Tuesday, June 25, 2013 / Rules
and Regulations
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2010-0089; 4500030115; 1113F116]
RIN 1018-AT56
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing One
Distinct Population Segment of Broad-Snouted Caiman as Endangered and a
Second as Threatened With a Special Rule
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
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SUMMARY: Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA),
we, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), reclassify the broad-
snouted caiman in Argentina from endangered to threatened in the List
of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. As part of this final rule, we
have established two distinct population segments (DPSs) of the broad-
snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris): A DPS in Argentina and a DPS
encompassing Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. This second DPS
remains listed as endangered under the ESA. We are finalizing this
action under the ESA based on the best available data indicating that
the Argentine population of the broad-snouted caiman no longer meets
the definition of endangered under the ESA. Intense management of the
species in Argentina has brought the Argentine DPS to the point where a
change in status is appropriate.
As of the effective date of this final rule, the broad-snouted
caiman will be included in the special rule for trade in caiman
species. Inclusion in this special rule allows U.S. commerce in skins,
other parts, and products of this species originating from Argentina,
and reexport of such specimens originating in Argentina, if certain
conditions are met prior to exportation to the United States.
DATES: This final rule is effective July 25, 2013.
ADDRESSES: This final rule is available on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov, and comments and materials received, as well as
supporting documentation used in the preparation of this rule, will be
available for public inspection, by appointment, during normal business
hours at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Suite
400, Arlington, VA 22203.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of
Foreign Species, Endangered Species Program; U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service; 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420; Arlington, VA 22203,
U.S.A. telephone 703-358-2171; facsimile 703-358-1735. Individuals who
are hearing-impaired or speech-impaired may call the Federal
Information Relay Service at 800-877-8339 for TTY assistance 24 hours a
day, 7 days a week.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Peer Review
In accordance with our joint peer review policy with the National
Marine Fisheries Service, ``Notice of Interagency Cooperative Policy
for Peer Review in Endangered Species Act Activities,'' published in
the Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), and the Office of
Management and Budget's Final Information Quality Bulletin for Peer
Review, dated December 16, 2004, we sought the expert opinions of three
appropriate independent specialists regarding the science in our
January 5, 2012, proposed rule (77 FR 666). The purpose of peer review
is to ensure that listing, downlisting, and delisting decisions are
based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and analyses. We
invited these peer reviewers to comment during the public comment
period, on the specific assumptions and conclusions in the proposed
downlisting of the Argentine population (DPS) of the broad-snouted
caiman. We provide a summary of the opinions of these reviewers below,
and we considered their input and any additional information we
received as part of this final determination.
Summary of Comments and Recommendations
We reviewed all comments we received from the public and peer
reviewers for substantive issues and new information regarding the
proposed delisting of this species, and we address those comments
below. Overall, the commenters and peer reviewers supported the
proposed reclassification of the Argentina DPS of the broad-snouted
caiman from endangered to threatened.
(1) Comment: One peer reviewer disagreed with our statement that an
adult caiman's primary food is fish. The reviewer stated that
``although there is ontogenetic variation, all sizes of broad-snouted
caiman are generalistic feeders (Borteiro et al. 2009). This
characteristic contributes to the species being a successful colonizer
of a wide variety of habitats.''
Our Response: The Service has reviewed the referenced material, and
we have incorporated this change.
(2) Comment: One peer reviewer corrected our statement that
``Recent observations and field surveys indicate that broad-snouted
caiman is fairly common in northern Uruguay, and is also widely
distributed in central and western Uruguay.'' The reviewer stated that
``It should read: `is also widely distributed in central and eastern
Uruguay.' ''
Our Response: We have revised the statement to incorporate this
change.
(3) Comment: One peer reviewer stated that Uruguay had local
regulations prohibiting the poaching of the species and that local take
was insignificant and referenced Bortiero et al. 2006.
Our Response: The Service has reviewed the referenced material, and
we have incorporated this into our final rule.
Previous Federal Actions
We listed this species as endangered on June 14, 1976 (41 FR
24062), in response to a petition we received in 1975 from the Fund for
Animals, requesting that the Service list all species that were
included in Appendix I of CITES as endangered under the ESA (see
additional discussion in CITES section.). In 2007, we received a
petition from the Government of Argentina, dated November 5, 2007,
requesting that we reclassify the broad-snouted caiman in Argentina
from endangered to threatened. The Argentine population of broad-
snouted caiman has been listed on Appendix II of CITES since 1997. The
broad-snouted caiman is still listed in Appendix I of CITES in Bolivia,
Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. With this petition, the Government of
Argentina requested reclassification of the species from endangered to
threatened in that country only. The petition contained detailed
information about the natural history and biology of the broad-snouted
caiman including the species' current status and distribution in
Argentina. The Government of Argentina cited reasons for the
reclassification, such as the broad-snouted caiman populations in
Argentina are healthy, habitat remains plentiful, caiman ranching
programs in Argentina have proven successful (wild populations are
increasing), and broad-snouted caiman production and harvest is
increasing in Argentina.
Because the petition from the Government of Argentina was for
reclassification of the Argentine population only, the Service had to
first consider whether the population of
[[Page 38163]]
Argentina qualified as a distinct vertebrate population segment (DPS)
under the ESA. (see discussion in Distinct Population Segment section).
We then evaluated the entire species to determine if a change in status
under the ESA is warranted based on any new information since the
species was listed under the ESA. The DPS policy requires the Service
to determine whether or not a vertebrate population is discrete and
significant and to determine the population segment's conservation
status in relation to the ESA's standards for listing, delisting, or
reclassification (i.e., is the population segment endangered or
threatened). If it qualifies, the policy requires a status
determination to determine if the population is endangered or
threatened.
On June 16, 2008, the Service published in the Federal Register a
90-day finding (73 FR 33968) on the petition, stating that the petition
provided substantial information to indicate that the requested action
(to reclassify the Argentine population of the broad-snouted caiman)
may be warranted.
On January 5, 2012, we published a proposed rule in the Federal
Register (77 FR 666), stating that the petitioned action to reclassify
the Argentina DPS of the broad-snouted caiman from endangered to
threatened was warranted. In the proposed rule, we proposed to
establish two distinct population segments (DPSs) of the broad-snouted
caiman (Caiman latirostris): a DPS in Argentina and a DPS encompassing
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The second DPS will remain
listed as endangered under the ESA. Within the proposed rule, we sought
comments on the petitioned action, as well as information on the status
of the species, particularly in Argentina. The comment period closed on
March 5, 2012. During the comment period, we received additional
scientific literature from peer reviewers as well as from the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Crocodile
Specialist Group (CSG), which provided information on the conservation
status of the species in Argentina. The comments and new information
have been considered and incorporated into this final rule to
reclassify the Argentine population of the broad-snouted caiman.
Background
The primary purpose of the ESA is to prevent animal and plant
species' endangerment and extinction. The ESA requires the Service to
identify species that meet the ESA's definitions of endangered and
threatened species, to add those species to the Federal Lists of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants (50 CFR 17.11 and 17.12,
respectively), and to plan and implement conservation measures to
improve their status to the point at which they no longer need the
protections of the ESA. When that protection is no longer needed, we
take steps to remove (delist) the species from the ESA. If a species is
listed as endangered, we may first reclassify it to threatened status
as an intermediate step before its eventual removal from the Federal
Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; however,
reclassification to threatened status is not required prior to removal.
Section 3 of the ESA provides the following definitions that are
relevant to this rule: Endangered species means any species which is in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range; Threatened species means any species which is likely to become
an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a
significant portion of its range. Species includes any subspecies of
fish or wildlife or plants, and any DPS of any species of vertebrate
fish or wildlife which interbreeds when mature.
When an endangered species (or DPS) has recovered to the point
where it is no longer currently in danger of extinction throughout all
or a significant portion of its range, but is likely to become so in
the foreseeable future, it is appropriate to reclassify that species
(or DPS) to threatened. The broad-snouted caiman was listed as
endangered in 1976. However, recent information indicates that the
Argentine population has increased since the time of the original
listing.
Technical Corrections
This final rule corrects errors in 50 CFR 17.11 as follows: The
table at 50 CFR 17.11(h) does not currently list Bolivia in the
historic range of the broad-snouted caiman. This final rule corrects
the ``Historic Range'' entry to include Bolivia. In addition, we are
correcting errors in the entries for three other caiman species: brown
caiman, common caiman, and yacare caiman. The entries for these species
in the ``Special Rules'' column direct readers to 50 CFR 17.42(g);
however, the special rule for all of these species is at 50 CFR
17.42(c).
Five-Year Review
Section 4(c)(2)(A) of the ESA requires that we conduct a review of
listed species at least once every 5 years. A 5-year review is a
periodic process conducted to ensure that the classification of a
listed species is appropriate. Section 4(c)(2)(B) requires that we
determine: (1) Whether a species no longer meets the definition of
endangered or threatened and should be removed from the List
(delisted); (2) whether a species more properly meets the definition of
threatened and should be reclassified from endangered to threatened; or
(3) whether a species more properly meets the definition of endangered
and should be reclassified from threatened to endangered. It is based
on the best scientific and commercial data available at the time of the
review. Our completion of the status review in making our 12-month
finding that the petitioned action to reclassify the Argentina DPS of
the broad-snouted caiman from endangered to threatened was warranted
(See 77 FR 666, the January 5, 2012 Federal Register notice of proposed
rulemaking) constituted our 5-year review of this species.
Species Description
The broad-snouted caiman is a medium-sized crocodilian with a body
length usually no more than 2 meters (m) (6.6 feet (ft)), and has the
proportionally broadest snout of any crocodile (Verdade et al. 2010, p.
18). It is found generally in lagoons, rivers, creeks, marshes, ponds,
and mangroves in river systems of northeast Argentina, southeast
Bolivia, Paraguay, and parts of Uruguay (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 97;
Verdade et al. 2010, p. 18).
According to Imhof (unpublished 2006), approximately 60 percent of
the species' range is in Brazil, 30 percent is in Argentina, 7 percent
is in Paraguay, and 3 percent is in Bolivia. The percentage of its
range in Uruguay is unknown. Broad-snouted caiman populations are on
the Atlantic coast, connected through the Paran[aacute] and S[atilde]o
Francisco River systems of northeast Argentina, southeast Bolivia,
Paraguay, and northeast Uruguay. The S[atilde]o Francisco River is
2,914 km (1,811 mi) in length.
The broad-snouted caiman exhibits greater climatic tolerance than
other caiman species (Verdade and Pi[ntilde]a 2006). The southernmost
limit of the distribution of the broad-snouted caiman is northern
Argentina (Jenkins et al. 2006), where it is found in the provinces of
Chaco, Corrientes, Entre R[iacute]os, Formosa, Jujuy, Misiones, Salta,
Santa Fe, and Santiago del Estero. In Argentina, 80 percent of the
Argentine distribution of the population occurs in the Province of
Santa Fe. Here, the species is found primarily in the floodplain along
the Paran[aacute] River, the Salado river watershed, and the
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Saladillos watershed (Larriera 1995, pp. 221-230).
This species is primarily found at altitudes up to 100 m (328 ft)
above sea level (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 99). The broad-snouted caiman
exhibits a high degree of flexibility in its habitat preferences. It is
an opportunistic feeder and generally prefers shallow aquatic
environments with abundant vegetation. In some areas, the broad-snouted
caiman is sympatric (occurs in overlapping geographical areas) with the
yacare caiman (Caiman yacare), but the broad-snouted caiman is usually
found in quieter, more heavily vegetated waters (Medem 1983; Scott et
al. 1990). C. yacare prefers large rivers with adjacent marshes (Scott
et al. 1990, pp. 43-51). Like many crocodilians, the broad-snouted
caiman can be found in temporary bodies of water and manmade habitats,
such as isolated cattle or agricultural stock ponds, livestock watering
holes, and drainage ditches or areas of runoff water. It can be found
in flooded forested areas in years of intense rains usually within
2,000 m (6,562 ft) from bodies of water (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 151).
The reproductive cycle of this species is seasonal. Mating occurs
in the spring (October through December), when polygynous males (males
who breed with more than one female) establish territories. When laying
eggs, this species constructs a ``mound nest'' out of vegetation, and
it deposits its eggs in the center of the mound. Another characteristic
of this species is that it exhibits communal nesting (several females
lay eggs in the same nest). Partially divided nest chambers, each with
normal clutch sizes, and nests with unusually large clutches (129 eggs)
have been observed in this species, which is indicative of communal
nesting (Larriera 2002). Clutch sizes range between 18 to 50 eggs, with
females typically laying between 30 and 40 eggs (Micucci and Waller
1995). Egg laying occurs during the wet summer season, which occurs
between December and February (Verdade 1998, pp. 18-19). Young caiman
hatch at the end of fall and early winter (February-April) (Micucci and
Waller 1995, p. 81).
This species is an opportunistic feeder. The young feed on insects
and small arthropods. As hatchlings grow, their diet becomes primarily
aquatic mollusks and crustaceans (Micucci and Waller 1995, pp. 81-112).
Adults are opportunistic predators whose prey increases in size in
relation to their growth (Borteiro 2009, pp. 34-35).
CITES
The broad-snouted caiman was listed in Appendix I of CITES on July
1, 1975. CITES Appendix I includes species that are threatened with
extinction and which are or may be affected by trade. Species listed
under Appendix I may not be traded for primarily commercial purposes.
These protections were put in place because the species had suffered
substantial population declines throughout its range due to habitat
destruction and overexploitation through the commercial crocodilian
skin trade.
The Argentine population was transferred from Appendix I to
Appendix II (which allows for commercial trade) in 1997. CITES Appendix
II includes species that are less vulnerable to extinction and that
although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so
unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict
regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their
survival. Management activities in Argentina were reviewed by the CITES
Parties prior to transferring this population from Appendix I to
Appendix II. The review included assessments of population status,
determination of sustainable harvest quotas (and approval of ranching
programs), and the control of the illegal harvest. Management
regulations imposed after harvest included the tagging of skins and
issuance of permits to satisfy the requirements for Appendix-II
species. For a more in-depth discussion on CITES, please see the
``International Trade and Regulation under CITES'' section under Factor
B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or
Educational Purposes.
Trade
Beginning in the 1940s, the broad-snouted caiman was hunted
commercially for its leather, which is considered to be higher quality
than that of other caiman species (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19). Prior
to being protected by CITES, thousands of broad-snouted caiman skins
were exported from its range countries, which led to the listing of the
species in Appendix I of CITES in 1975 (Verdade 1998, pp. 18-19;
Larriera 2003, unpaginated). In 1990, ``Projecto Yacar[eacute]''
(``Caiman Project'') was implemented in Argentina based on a concept of
conservation through sustainable use of broad-snouted caiman. The
objective of the program was to improve the status of the population in
two ways: By creating incentives for landowners, and by increasing
public awareness in the local communities to encourage the increase of
caiman populations. Another objective was to conserve natural wetlands
on which caimans depend (Larriera et al. 2008a, pp. 143-145). As of
2008, four ranching programs were operating in Argentina (Larriera et
al. 2008), producing a total of approximately 12,000 skins per year
(Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19). As of 2010, there were seven ranching
programs registered with the government of Argentina. These programs
also reintroduce captive-raised individuals to the wild. Three of the
programs function on an educational basis, with no commercial
production. These educational ranching operations are in Entre
R[iacute]os, Chaco, and Corrientes Provinces. Two of the commercial
ranching programs are in Formosa; the other two are in Corrientes and
Santa Fe Provinces. In 2010, there were 7,768 hatchlings produced in
Argentina (Larriera 2010b, p. 1).
Conservation Status
The broad-snouted caiman is currently listed as endangered
throughout its range under the ESA and received protections under the
ESA on June 14, 1976 (41 FR 24062). With respect to CITES, this species
was placed in Appendix I of CITES due to severe exploitation for
international trade and habitat destruction. Because the Argentine
broad-snouted caiman population was moved to Appendix II of CITES in
1997, commercial international trade is now allowed (subject to several
restrictions) for specimens, parts, and products originating in
Argentina. With respect to the ESA, the broad-snouted caiman is
presently listed as endangered in its entirety under the ESA (41 FR
24062; June 14, 1976), and importation into the United States of
endangered species is prohibited under the ESA with certain exceptions.
IUCN classifies this species as ``least concern'' (http://www.iucnredlist.org, accessed August 29, 2012). However, IUCN rankings
do not confer any actual protection or management.
Status in Range Countries and Population Estimates
Actual numbers of the species have been difficult to document in
part because broad-snouted caiman habitat tends to be heavily vegetated
and is difficult to access by humans. Some researchers believe that the
size of the population has historically been underestimated (Larriera
and Imhof 2000, pp. 311-313). The imprecision is reflected in the
global wild population
[[Page 38165]]
estimate of between 250,000 and 500,000 individuals (http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/csp_clat.htm, accessed May 10, 2013 and January
18, 2011).
It is difficult to accurately obtain population numbers for
crocodiles due to variables such as water temperature, the nature of
their behavior of disappearing underwater in response to certain types
of disturbance, their respective visibility based on water depths, and
their ability to migrate based on drought or flooding (Pacheco 1996, p.
44; Bayliss 1987, p. 158; Graham 1988, p. 74; Magnusson 1980, pp. 393-
394). An early journal article described ``night counts'' as a
mechanism for surveying American alligators, which live in habitat
similar to that of broad-snouted caiman (Wood et al. 1986, p. 263) and
exhibit similar characteristics. This paper indicated that ``the
accuracy of night count indices is only 20-25 percent of true
population means'' and referred to previous research conducted by
Taylor and Neal (1984, pp. 316-317). Night count surveys use spotlights
to detect caiman eyes. Although night counts are not entirely precise,
they are very often used as a method of surveying crocodile species.
As an example of the difficulty in accurately obtaining population
numbers for crocodiles, a review of crocodile ranching programs
conducted for CITES by the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG) in
2004 found that only three Parties (one of which was Argentina) to
CITES attempted to estimate what proportion of the total wild
production was being harvested under their ranching programs (Jenkins
et al. 2006, pp. 34-35). These estimates were based on ``production
estimates'' (such as numbers of eggs collected from the wild
specifically in connection with the ranching programs), which are
described by the CSG as having wide variances and largely unknown
accuracy (Jenkins et al. 2006, pp. 34-35). However, this report
indicated that the easiest data to obtain and report to track
population trends are those linked to the operation of the ranching
programs (the method used by Argentina), data such as numbers of eggs
collected from the wild. The eggs in Argentina's program are collected
from known nest locations in the wild and are an indication of caiman
density. This is why we use the information reported from Argentina's
egg harvest as the best available information regarding population
trend.
The IUCN-CSG report also indicated that results probably indicate
deficiencies in reporting rather than any declines of conservation
significance in wild populations. The CSG recommended that field data
be collected to verify this assertion, some of which has been collected
over the past few years. Although not many caiman populations have been
monitored in the wild, there has been some monitoring in Argentina
since the 1990s. In 2010, Larriera and Siroski reported on population
trends of caiman monitored in the Santa Fe Province of Argentina since
the 1990s. This monitoring indicated that average densities increased
from 2 to 8 caiman per kilometer (km) to between 20 to 120 caiman per
km. In other areas of Argentina, recent densities of broad-snouted
caiman ranged between 5 and 238 caiman per km, and almost 70 sites were
surveyed.
Below is the best available information regarding the status of the
species in each country.
Argentina
In Argentina, the broad-snouted caiman is found in nine provinces
(Formosa, Santa Fe, Misiones, Corrientes, Entre Rios, Chaco, Santiago
del Estero, Salta, and Jujuy). According to Imhof (unpublished 2006),
approximately 30 percent of the species' range is in Argentina.
Argentina has large areas of intact, although altered habitat with
healthy caiman populations (Verdade 1998, pp. 18-19; Pi[ntilde]a et al.
2009). For example, broad-snouted caiman is thought to inhabit 2,400 of
2,700 water bodies (Pi[ntilde]a et al. 2008, p. 4) in the Salta
Province in Argentina. Surveys conducted in 2007 and 2008 indicated
that broad-snouted caiman habitat in Salta Province is about 3,650
km\2\ (1,409 mi\2\). These surveys found broad-snouted caiman densities
had increased to between 20 and 120 caiman per km in 2009, up from 2 to
8 caiman per km in 1990 when Argentina's management program of broad-
snouted caiman first began (Siroski and Larriera 2010, pers. comm.).
This species has been observed in a variety of habitats and
waterways, including rivers near waterfalls such as Iguaz[uacute], and
freshwater creeks with rocky bottoms (Micucci and Waller 1995, pp. 81-
110). In the Province of Santa Fe, the species is found primarily in
the floodplain along the Paran[aacute] River, the Salado river
watershed, and the Saladillos watershed (Larriera 1995). Its choices of
nesting areas reflect the adaptability of this species to a variety of
habitats. Nests have been found along dikes or levees, shallow lagoons,
still and slow-moving waters in rivers and channels, artificial ponds,
and on small hills in wetlands (Larriera 1995, pp. 221-230). Nests have
also been found in mature chaco forests of open or closed canopy as far
as 300-2,000 m (984-6,562 ft) from water (Larriera 1995, pp. 221-230;
Larriera et al. 2008, p. 151).
Since management and monitoring of the Argentine population began,
population estimates for Argentina have indicated an upward trend. This
has been achieved through an organized ranching program and
reintroduction of hatchlings into the wild (see discussion under
Factors B and D below). Because of this program, a significant increase
in egg production, collection, and reproductive success has occurred in
the wild. Over 30,000 hatchlings from eggs collected have been released
into the wild since the program began (Larriera et al 2008, p. 143).
Surveys conducted between 1991 and 1992 in the Iber[aacute] Reserve
indicated an average density of 12.2 individuals per km (Pi[ntilde]a et
al. 2009, p. 4). Surveys conducted during the 1999-2000 season in the
Iber[aacute] Reserve indicated that in the Corrientes Province the
density had increased to 32.4 individuals per km (Waller 2003 in
Pi[ntilde]a et al. 2010, p. 4). When the program began in the Santa Fe
Province, night counts within the project area found less than 1 caiman
per km, but it increased to almost 10 caiman per km in 2000, and over 4
caiman per kilometer in 2006 and 2007 (Larriera 2008c, p. 2). This
decrease in density during 2006-2007 was attributed to drought
(Larriera 2008c, p. 3); however, natural fluctuations such as this
often occur in wild populations (Woodward 2010, p. 2).
Caiman populations, like most other crocodilian populations, can be
adversely affected by droughts during some years, but the populations
are able to rebound in wetter years. Most crocodilians and prey species
suffer short-term declines during these conditions but readily respond
to wetter conditions. Despite the decrease in reproduction during the
period of drought, overall, egg harvest increased 750 percent between
1992 and 2007 (Larriera 2008c, p. 330). After 2001, the number of eggs
harvested continued to steadily increase (Larriera et al 2008c, p.
332). This increase in egg production was attributed in part to caiman
being released through this program that had reached sexual maturity,
and partly due to the increased survival rate of juveniles (Larriera
2008c, p. 330). Because the mortality rate of caiman in the wild is so
high between the embryonic stage up to a few month of age, the process
of removing the eggs from the wild and rearing the caiman in an
environment where they are free from predation increases their survival
[[Page 38166]]
rate significantly. Additional densities recorded within its range are
in Table 1.
Table 1--Densities of Broad-Snouted Caiman Observed During Population Counts
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of Range of caiman
Country/province Years localities densities Source
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Argentina/Formosa................... 2007-2008 11 22 to 238 per km....... Pi[ntilde]a et al.
(2008).
Argentina/Corrientes................ 2007-2008 10 5 to 125 per km........ Pi[ntilde]a et al.
(2008).
Argentina/Salta..................... 2007-2008 39 3 to 5 caiman per Pi[ntilde]a et al.
lagoon. (2008).
Argentina/Sante Fe.................. 2007-2008 Not 4 per km*.............. Larriera et al.
available (2008).
Argentina/Santa Fe.................. 2002 7 6 to 200 per km........ Larriera and Imhoff
(2004).
Bolivia/Pilcomayo River Basin, 1998 6 3 to 58 per km......... Llobet-Querejazu
Tarija. (1998).
Bolivia/Tarija Department........... 2004-2005 54 6.17 per km............ Aparicio and Rios
(2008).
Uruguay............................. 2001-2004 36 3.5 per km............. Borteiro et al.
(2008).
Brazil/S[atilde]o Francisco River 2006-2007 64 Presence in 44 percent Filogonio et al.
Basin. of areas surveyed. (2009).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Recent caiman counts suggest that populations declined somewhat during 2002-2003 and 2007-2008 (Larriera et
al. 2008; Micucci et al. 2007). This has been attributed to cyclic drought conditions during the early 2000s
(Larriera et al. 2008; Micucci et al. 2007).
Bolivia
The population of broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia is at the far
western edge of the species' range. According to Imhof (unpublished
2006), approximately 3 percent of the species' range is in Bolivia. In
1983, broad-snouted caiman was found in the Pando Department
(departments in South America are comparable to state jurisdictions in
the United States) of Bolivia, which is at the northwestern tip of
Bolivia (Medem 1983). In 1989, broad-snouted caiman was only found in
the Pilcomayo River area, a tributary of the Paraguay River (King and
Videz-Roca 1989). The Paraguay River, also known as Rio Paraguay, is
2,621 km (1,629 miles (mi)) in length and runs through Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, and Argentina, joining the broad-snouted caiman populations
in these countries. Surveys in the late 1990s considered the Bolivian
population of this species to be severely depleted (Verdade 1998, pp.
18-19). Anecdotal reports indicate that the abundance of broad-snouted
caiman in the Pilcomayo River region may have increased over the past
10 years, but in the Bermejo River region, populations may have
declined (Aparicio and R[iacute]os 2008, pp. 111, 122). It is unclear
whether the population change is public perception or whether the
perception represents an actual change in broad-snouted caiman
population numbers within Bolivia.
During a survey conducted in 2003 and 2004, 6.2 individuals per km
were observed (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 104). The survey was
conducted in 54 water bodies, 42 of which are part of the Pilcomayo
River sub-basin, and the remaining 12 water bodies in the sub-basin of
the Bermejo River (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 110). The highest
abundance values were recorded in ``atajados'' (dikes) and artificial
ponds. Broad-snouted caiman exhibit preferences for inhabiting
temporary shallow water bodies that have abundant vegetation cover. The
population of broad-snouted caiman for the sub-basin of Pilcomayo River
was extrapolated on the basis of 135 observed individuals (Aparcio and
Rios 2008, p. 108).
In 1998, an abundance of 3.3 individuals per km was reported
(Pacheco and Llobet 1998). The 1998 data indicated that the population
was dominated by young individuals (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 110).
These researchers indicated that this high level of young may indicate
that the population is increasing. Although different survey methods
and timing were employed in the 1998 and 2003-2004 surveys, the
population estimates suggest an increase in density of almost 3
individuals per km from 1998 to 2003-2004. A further observation of the
survey found that broad-snouted caiman exist in areas previously
considered to be uninhabited by them. This species is found in the Gran
Chaco, Arce, and O'Connor Provinces (sub-basins Pilcomayo and Bermejo)
in the Tarija Department, which is in the south of Bolivia. Despite
information suggesting an increasing trend in the Bolivian population,
populations of broad-snouted caiman are still considered to be severely
depleted in Bolivia (Aparicio and R[iacute]os 2008, p. 104; Verdade et
al. 2010, p. 19).
Brazil
Brazil has the largest range for this species; approximately 60
percent of the species' range is in Brazil (Imhof unpublished 2006). In
2003, Brazil established a nationwide research and development program,
called Programme for Biology, Conservation and Management of Brazilian
Crocodilians (Coutinho and Luz 2008 in Velasco et al. 2008 p. 80). The
broad-snouted caiman was listed as an endangered species in Brazil
until 2003, at which time the species was withdrawn from the Brazilian
List of Endangered Fauna (The Brazilian Institute of Environment and
Renewable Natural Resources [IBAMA] 2003). In 2006, it was reported
that in southeast Brazil there were four farms involved in breeding
this species. There were a total of 354 caiman in the farms, and in
2006, 719 hatchlings had been produced (CSG Steering Committee Meeting
2006, p. 6). We have no other information about the status of this
program.
Although there is still a lack of population data and monitoring,
the surveys conducted indicate that broad-snouted caiman is present
(confirmed in 44 percent of 64 areas surveyed) throughout the
S[atilde]o Francisco River basin, its primary habitat (Filogonio et al.
2009, p. 961). A 2006-2007 survey conducted in the S[atilde]o Francisco
river basin found the occurrence of crocodilians in 61 percent of 64
surveyed localities, in which the presence of broad-snouted caiman was
confirmed in 44 percent of the surveyed sites. This was a survey
conducted primarily to detect presence and absence, rather than an
estimate of the population (Filogonio et al. 2009, p. 961). Caiman
occurred in both lentic (still water) and lotic (moving water)
habitats, although caiman preferred water bodies consisting of small
dams, oxbow lakes, and wetlands. Despite the hunting pressure and human
impact on natural habitats, results indicated that the populations of
broad-snouted caiman in the S[atilde]o Francisco basin are broadly
distributed and not fragmented (Filogonio et al. 2009, p. 961).
No other recent survey data are known in Brazil other than in the
[[Page 38167]]
northwest portion of Santa Catarina Island, in the Ratones River plain.
In this area surveyed, a density of 0.25 caiman per km was encountered
(Fusco-Costa et al. 2008, p. 185). Based on their size, these caiman
were generally considered to be adults.
Preliminary data indicate that this species is more widespread and
prevalent in Brazil than previously believed. The main concern for this
species in Brazil appears to be dams that have been constructed for
hydroelectric stations that block water flow to wetlands. Both drainage
of land for agriculture and river pollution have reduced the
availability of broad-snouted caiman habitat in Brazil (Verdade 1998,
pp. 18-19). Hunting pressure is another factor that affects broad-
snouted caiman in Brazil. It is hunted for several reasons: because
caiman feed on the fish attached to fishing nets; because caiman
destroy fishing nets; and because caiman are a source of food. Although
Brazil has established a research and development program for the
conservation and management of Brazilian crocodilians, data are lacking
for this species on its population.
Paraguay
No recent survey data are available for Paraguay. However,
according to Imhof (unpublished 2006), approximately 7 percent of the
species' range is in Paraguay. The latest data available indicate that
the population of broad-snouted caiman is naturally low and scattered
throughout eastern Paraguay and the southern half of the Chaco region,
western Paraguay, possibly because other potential habitat in western
Paraguay is ephemeral (seasonal, not permanent) (Scott et al. 1990, pp.
43-49). The Paraguayan population is found in seasonal marshes and
livestock ponds, and has colonized manmade water bodies (Scott et al.
1990). There is no known conservation program for broad-snouted caiman
in Paraguay.
Uruguay
The broad-snouted caiman is the only caiman species found in
Uruguay (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 98); the percentage of this species'
range in Uruguay is unknown (Imhof unpublished 2006). There was little
information available regarding this species' population numbers in
Uruguay until recently. The population of broad-snouted caiman in
Uruguay is more widespread and appears larger than previously believed
(Borteiro et al. 2006, pp. 97-108; Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. 244-250),
but it is unclear whether population growth has occurred or whether
earlier surveys were inaccurate. In the past, it was suggested that a
decline in population had occurred in Uruguay, but no strong basis for
this suggestion existed (Verdade 1998, p. 20). Recent observations and
field surveys indicate that broad-snouted caiman is fairly common in
northern Uruguay and is also widely distributed in central and eastern
Uruguay (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). This species is adaptable to a
wide range of water sources and habitats (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 102;
Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 244) and is connected to the Argentine and
Brazilian populations through the Uruguay River basin (Borteiro et al.
2006, p. 103).
Previous local reports about the population status of broad-snouted
caiman in Uruguay published since the mid-1950s suggested that this
species was subject to extinction due to habitat destruction and
poaching (Achaval 1977; Orejas-Miranda 1969; Talice 1971; Vaz-Ferreira
1971; Vaz-Ferreira 1956); however, no discussion of survey data and
methods was made to support these conclusions (Borteiro et al. 2008, p.
247). Although there has been documented take of this species by local
citizens for subsistence, research suggests this practice is not common
and is therefore considered to be an insignificant factor affecting the
species (Borteiro, et al. 2006, p. 108). Additionally, there has been
some indication that at the local level, the poaching of the broad-
snouted caiman is prohibited (Borteiro, et al. 2006, p. 108). However,
information regarding enforcement is lacking (see Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, Uruguay DPS (Northern DPS) discussion). During surveys
conducted between 1981 and 2003, the species was found in both the
Cebollat[iacute] and Tacuar[iacute] Rivers, as well as in the Pelotas,
India Muerta, and San Miguel stream basins (Borteiro et al. 2006, p.
97). In the Department of Artigas (northern tip of Uruguay), broad-
snouted caiman was found to be present in 29 out of 36 surveyed areas
(Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. 246). The area studied consisted of
approximately 400 km\2\ (154 mi\2\) of fluvial plains in the Uruguay
River basin, in Artigas Department, northwestern Uruguay. The caiman
observed were predominantly subadults.
Although comparisons with these previous surveys are difficult
based on unknown methodologies used in the past, the 2008 data, along
with the population age structure of caiman, suggest that the
population may be increasing (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). The
researcher noted that the observed caiman were predominantly subadults
and, thus, had the potential to recruit into adult size classes (as
opposed to very young hatchlings, which have a significantly higher
mortality rate). This observation may be due to an increase in
agricultural and livestock activities that inadvertently had a positive
effect on broad-snouted caiman. These previous reports about the
population status of broad-snouted caiman in Uruguay may have been due
to inadequate surveys or survey methodology, or the population may have
grown.
In 2008, the number of caiman located in each area surveyed ranged
between one and 31. The average abundance was between 1.3 and 3.4 per
km (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 246). Research conducted recently
regarding the population age structure of caiman in Uruguay indicates
that the population is increasing (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). This
may be due to an increase in agricultural impoundments that have been
constructed in the past few decades which have unintentionally created
suitable habitat for caiman. Each department in which broad-snouted
caiman has recently been documented and the most recent date observed
follows (Borteiro et al. 2008, pp. 244-250):
Dept. of Artigas (Northern Uruguay; caiman commonly found)
Yacuy stream (2002)
Mandiyu stream (2003)
Dept. of Cerro Largo (eastern Uruguay)
Fraile Muerto stream (2005)
Dept. of Lavelleja
Jos[eacute] Pedro Varela (2003)
Dept. of Paysand[uacute] (1997)
Dept. of Rocha
San Luis (2001)
San Miguel River stream (2003)
Dept. of Rivera (1992)
Dept. of Tacuaremb[oacute]
Paso Bonilla (2003)
Dept. of Salto (Northwestern Uruguay, no current reports; historical
accounts only, Borteiro et al. 2006, pp. 98-100)
Dept. of Treinta y Tres
Merin Lake; Tacuari River (2002)
Paso del Dragon (2002)
Kiosco Tacuari (2003)
Additionally, in Uruguay, a private farm began in 2002 that
involved reproduction and reintroduction of this species into the wild.
The goal of this government-sanctioned farm was to produce skins and
meat commercially. In 2008, there were 20 adult caiman in the farm, yet
they had reintroduced 100 caiman back into the wild (Velasco et al.
2008, p. 82). The Service knows of no
[[Page 38168]]
additional information regarding this private farm.
In summary, the population of broad-snouted caiman in Uruguay
appears to be larger than previously believed, but differences in
survey methodologies used make it difficult to assess population
trends. The percentage of the broad-snouted caiman population that
exists in Uruguay has still not been estimated.
Distinct Population Segment Analysis
As indicated previously in this document, the Government of
Argentina requested that we review the status of the species in
Argentina in order to determine whether or not the species warrants
reclassification to threatened status under the ESA. Section 3(16) of
the ESA defines ``species'' to include ``any subspecies of fish or
wildlife or plants, and any distinct population segment [DPS] of any
species of vertebrate fish or wildlife which interbreeds when mature''
(16 U.S.C. 1532(16)). In evaluating whether the action petitioned by
Argentina is warranted, we first must analyze whether this population
constitutes a ``species'' as defined under the ESA. Thus, we begin our
analysis with a determination of whether the population in Argentina
represents a DPS. A DPS is a listable entity under the ESA, and is
treated the same as a listed species or subspecies. It is listed,
protected, and recovered just as any other endangered or threatened
species or subspecies. The term ``distinct population segment'' is part
of the statutory definition of a ``species'' and is significant for
listing, delisting, and reclassification purposes under section 4 of
the ESA.
To interpret and implement the DPS provisions of the ESA and
Congressional guidance, the Service and the National Marine Fisheries
Service jointly published the DPS Policy (see the Policy Regarding the
Recognition of Distinct Vertebrate Population Segments under the
Endangered Species Act (61 FR 4722; February 7, 1996)). Congress
included the DPS concept in the ESA, recognizing that a listing,
reclassification, or delisting action may, in some circumstances, be
more appropriately applied over something less than the entire area in
which a species or subspecies is found or was known to occur in order
to protect and recover organisms in a more timely and cost-effective
manner. A DPS is a listable entity that is usually described
geographically rather than biologically. By using international
boundaries, we are able to clearly identify the geographic extent of
the DPS listing and thereby facilitate law enforcement and promote
public understanding of the listing. Under this Policy, we evaluate a
set of elements in a three-step process in order to make our decision
concerning the establishment and classification of a possible DPS.
These elements are applied similarly for both additions to,
reclassifications under, and removals from the Federal Lists of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. These elements include:
(1) The discreteness of a population in relation to the remainder
of the taxon to which it belongs;
(2) The significance of the population segment to the taxon to
which it belongs; and
(3) The population segment's conservation status in relation to the
ESA's standards for listing (addition to the list), delisting (removal
from the list), or reclassification (i.e., is the population segment
endangered or threatened?).
The DPS Policy first requires the Service to determine that a
vertebrate population is discrete in relation to the remainder of the
taxon to which it belongs. Discreteness refers to the ability to
delineate a population segment from other members of a taxon based on
either: (1) Physical, physiological, ecological, or behavioral factors
(quantitative measures of genetic or morphological discontinuity may
provide evidence of this separation), or (2) international governmental
boundaries that result in significant differences in control of
exploitation, management, or habitat conservation status, or regulatory
mechanisms that are significant in light of section 4(a)(1)(D) of the
ESA--the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms.
Second, if we determine that the population is discrete under one
or more of the discreteness conditions, then a determination is made as
to whether the population is significant to the larger taxon to which
it belongs in light of Congressional guidance (see Senate Report 151,
96th Congress, 1st Session) that the authority to list DPS's be used
``sparingly and only when the biological evidence indicates that such
action is warranted.'' In carrying out this examination, we consider
available scientific evidence of the population's importance to the
taxon to which it belongs. This consideration may include, but is not
limited to, the following:
(1) The persistence of the population segment in an ecological
setting that is unique or unusual for the taxon;
(2) Evidence that loss of the population segment would result in a
significant gap in the range of the taxon;
(3) Evidence that the population segment represents the only
surviving natural occurrence of a taxon that may be more abundant
elsewhere as an introduced population outside of its historic range;
and
(4) Evidence that the discrete population segment differs markedly
from other populations of the species in its genetic characteristics
from other populations of the species.
A population segment needs to satisfy only one of these conditions
to be considered significant. Evidence with respect to any one of these
scenarios may allow the Service to conclude that a population segment
can be significant to the taxon to which it belongs. Furthermore, the
Service may consider other information relevant to the question of
significance, as appropriate.
Lastly, if we determine that the population is both discrete and
significant, then the DPS Policy requires an analysis of the population
segment's conservation status in relation to the ESA's standards for
listing (addition to the list), delisting (removal from the list), or
reclassification (i.e., is the population segment endangered or
threatened?). A detailed discussion is then presented for the five
listing factors for each DPS as required by the ESA. For each of the
potential DPSs, we analyze, using the best scientific and commercial
data available and taking into consideration the conservation efforts
of foreign nations, whether the five listing factors, individually or
collectively, under section 4(a)(1) of the Act impact the population
segment such that it meets the definitions of a threatened or
endangered species or qualifies for removal from the Federal Lists of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife.
The broad-snouted caiman has a continuous range from Argentina to
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (see http://www.regulations.gov,
Appendix A in Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2010-0089). We evaluated the status
of this species to determine if two distinct population segments exist
(one in Argentina, and the other in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and
Uruguay) under the DPS Policy because the species' range spans several
countries and its conservation status varies by country. We evaluated
the species in this manner specifically for two reasons. First, the
Government of Argentina petitioned us to reclassify the species in
Argentina to threatened. Second, in Argentina, this species is listed
in Appendix II of CITES, and in the rest of its range (Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, and Uruguay), it is listed in Appendix I of CITES. The
significance of this
[[Page 38169]]
distinction is that these two populations may be subject to different
management regimes and may have different conservation statuses. Thus,
we considered whether these two populations meet the discreteness and
significance criteria under our DPS policy, and then whether these two
potential DPS's of the broad-snouted caiman still meet the definition
of endangered, whether either or both should be reclassified to
threatened, or whether either population segment has recovered and is
no longer either endangered or threatened.
Discreteness
In the first step in our DPS analysis, we determine whether there
are any populations that are discrete in relation to the remainder of
the taxon to which it belongs. A DPS may be considered discrete if it
meets the criteria described above under Distinct Population Segment
Analysis. Recognition of international boundaries when they coincide
with differences in the management, status, or exploitation of the
species under the ESA is consistent with CITES, which recognizes
international boundaries for these same reasons.
Physical, Physiological, Ecological, or Behavioral Factors
There are no studies or information that indicate there are
physical, physiological, ecological, or behavioral characteristics that
would contribute to separateness between the Argentine population and
the population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The Paraguay
River connects the broad-snouted caiman populations in Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil, and Paraguay. The Uruguay population of the broad-
snouted caiman is connected to the Argentine and Brazilian populations
through the Uruguay River basin (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 103). Broad-
snouted caiman populations are also connected through the Paran[aacute]
and S[atilde]o Francisco River systems of northeast Argentina,
southeast Bolivia, Paraguay, and northeast Uruguay. This is a wide-
ranging species that occurs primarily in freshwater environments such
as lakes, swamps, and slow-moving rivers. It is connected via the major
river systems that flow through the species' range, and we have found
no information indicating separateness between the Argentine population
and the population occurring in the remainder of the species' range due
to physical, physiological, ecological, or behavioral factors.
Therefore, we did not find either population segment is discrete based
on this factor.
Moreover, we are not aware of any quantitative data of genetic or
morphological discontinuity to indicate separateness between the two
populations. Because of their interactions through interconnected river
systems and a current range that mirrors their historical range, we
find that the two populations overlap, allowing for genetic
intermixing. Therefore, these two population segments cannot be
delineated based on physical, physiological, ecological, or behavioral
factors.
International Differences in Species' Conservation Status
Under our DPS policy, consideration may be given to utilizing
international boundaries in establishing discreteness when differences
in management, conservation status, or control of exploitation of the
species exist between these population segments as a consequence of
national legislation. Thus, we analyze below whether any of these
differences exist that are significant in light of section 4(a)(1)(D)
of the ESA.
Argentina
Two clear differences in the exploitation, management, habitat
conservation status, or regulatory mechanisms of this species exist
between Argentina and the remainder of its range. This species is
intensely managed in Argentina. Due to its improved status in the wild,
it is listed in Appendix II of CITES. In contrast, this species is not
intensively managed in the remainder of its range, and it continues to
be listed in Appendix I of CITES in the range countries outside of
Argentina. The primary reason this species was protected by the ESA and
CITES was because of the decrease in population numbers due to
overutilization (see discussion under Factor B in the Evaluation of
Factors Affecting the Species section below). However, Argentina's
management regime has resulted in an increase in this species'
population such that harvest for international trade may be conducted
sustainably under proper management.
Although all of this species' range countries have national
protected-species and protected-areas legislation under the
jurisdiction of specific ministries or departments that control
activities that impact the broad-snouted caiman and its habitat,
Argentina's national legal framework is particularly robust (see Factor
D discussion). In 1990, Argentina began a joint government-private
initiative to recover this species in the Santa Fe Province (Jenkins et
al. 2004, pp. 25-28; Verdade 2010, pp. 18-20). This program was
ratified by Provincial Law 4830, Articles 22 and 37 (CITES CoP 10,
Proposal 10.1), and subsequently expanded in scope. Now there are seven
government-approved broad-snouted ranching programs within four
provinces. This initiative began in order to increase this species'
population size and to be able to sustain commercial harvest. In the
proposal to transfer this species from CITES Appendix I to Appendix II,
the proposal noted that although the primary threat was initially
overutilization, the more recent and significant threat was habitat
loss (CITES Cop 10, Proposal 10.1). The proposal indicated that a
method to reduce the threat of habitat loss is to put an economic value
on the species' habitat, so that the local communities and farmers
would not drain the land (degrade the species' habitat). Thus,
Argentina's caiman egg harvesting program began creating incentives for
locals to protect and conserve habitat for the broad-snouted caiman
(see Factor D discussion below).
This species is also protected through national legislation (Law
22.421 and Decree 691/81), administered by the Direcci[oacute]n
Nacional de Fauna y Flora Silvestres. The Government of Argentina is
adequately enforcing its legal frameworks, both at the national and
international levels. The species has significantly increased in
density since the caiman ranching program began in 1990, and its range
has expanded into areas where it had not been seen prior to 1990. In
the Santa Fe Province, for example, the number of nests identified
increased from 14 in 1990 to 304 nests in 2002 (Jenkins et al. 2004, p.
27). The monitoring reports indicate that Argentina's management of the
species is resulting in an upward trend in this species' population.
Argentina submits reports in accordance with CITES and is an active
participant in the IUCN's Crocodile Specialist Group, particularly for
this species. The management of this species has led to significant
improvement in the status of the species in Argentina, which has been
demonstrated through monitoring and reporting (Jenkins et al. 2004, pp.
25-28; Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18-20).
Due to Argentina's management, the population of broad-snouted
caiman is now widespread and abundant throughout its range in
Argentina. It is relatively common in suitable habitat in the provinces
of Formosa, Santa Fe, Corrientes, and Salta. While some habitat loss
and degradation remain in Argentina, these threats have been reduced,
as explained in our five-factor
[[Page 38170]]
analysis below. The best available information strongly suggests that
the caiman population in Argentina is increasing, while the population
trend in the other range countries is unclear (Verdade et al. 2010, pp.
18-19).
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay
Within each of these countries, there a wide variability in the
amount of information available about the species and its management
and monitoring (Borteiro et al. 2006; Larriera et al. 2008, p. 152;
Verdade et al. 2010, p. 20). This species is listed in Appendix I of
CITES in these range countries, which means that international trade
originating from these countries of broad-snouted caiman, including its
parts and products, for primarily commercial purposes is prohibited. To
our knowledge, none of these countries has submitted proposals to
change the status of this species under CITES to the less restrictive
Appendix II listing (http://www.cites.org, accessed July 7, 2011).
Although this international trade restriction is in place for range
countries other than Argentina, we remain concerned about habitat loss,
and the status and management of wild populations, in the range
countries outside of Argentina.
In the remainder of this species' range (Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay,
and Uruguay), these governments either have not demonstrated an ability
to adequately enforce their legal framework, or there is no population
trend or monitoring data about the species to indicate the status of
the species in these countries is improving. We found little to no
information about the status of the species in these countries. This
was supported by the most recent report on the status of the species
prepared by the IUCN's Crocodile Specialist Group (Verdade et al. 2010,
pp. 18-19). The best available information indicates that this species
in these countries is still subject to unmitigated pressures such as
destruction of habitat due to human encroachment, construction of dams,
conversion of habitat to agriculture, and, in some cases, illegal
hunting. Conservation actions for this species may not be a priority in
these other range countries, and these countries may be facing economic
issues, high levels of poverty, hunting pressure, and conversion of
caiman habitat to other uses. The lack of funding and personnel often
makes enforcement of their legal frameworks challenging. As a result of
differences in exploitation, management, habitat conservation status,
or regulatory mechanisms, the broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, and Uruguay remains in CITES' Appendix I. Based on these
differences in the control and management of habitat and exploitation
as delineated by international boundaries, we consider the population
in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay to be a separate discrete
population.
Conclusion on Discreteness
We have determined, based on the best available information, that
the population of broad-snouted caiman in Argentina is discrete from
the population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay due to the
significant difference in the control of exploitation, management of
habitat, conservation status, and regulatory mechanisms between
international boundaries. We conclude that these two populations--(1)
the population in Argentina and (2), the population in Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, and Uruguay--of the broad-snouted caiman meet the
requirements of our DPS Policy for discreteness.
Significance
If a distinct population segment is considered discrete under one
or more of the conditions described in the DPS policy, its biological
and ecological significance will be considered in light of
Congressional guidance (see Senate Report 151, 96th Congress, 1st
Session). In making this determination, we consider available
scientific evidence of each discrete population segment's importance to
the taxon to which it belongs. As precise circumstances vary
considerably from case to case, the DPS policy does not describe all
ways that might be used in determining the biological and ecological
importance of a discrete population. However, the DPS policy describes
four possible scenarios that provide evidence of a population segment's
biological and ecological importance to the taxon to which it belongs
(see additional discussion above under Distinct Population Segment
Analysis).
A population segment needs to satisfy only one of these conditions
to be considered significant. Furthermore, other information may be
used as appropriate to provide evidence for significance. Having
determined that the population of broad-snouted caiman in Argentina is
discrete from the population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay,
we then determine the significance of these two discrete populations to
the taxon. We evaluate the biological and ecological significance based
on the available scientific evidence of each population segment's
importance to the taxon to which it belongs. A population's biological
significance is evaluated based on the principles of conservation
biology using the concepts of redundancy, resiliency, and
representation (see Redford et al. 2011 for additional information on
these concepts). These concepts also can be expressed in terms of four
viability characteristics: Abundance, spatial distribution,
productivity, and diversity of the species.
Persistence in a Unique Ecological Setting
The broad-snouted caiman is a wide-ranging species that occurs
primarily in freshwater environments such as lakes, swamps, and slow-
moving rivers. Its habitat in Argentina is typical of the species'
habitat throughout its range (including Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and
Uruguay). We do not have any evidence to indicate that the Argentine
population of the broad-snouted caiman occurs in habitat that includes
unique features not used by the taxon elsewhere in its range.
Therefore, we conclude that neither the discrete population of broad-
snouted caiman in Argentina nor the discrete population in Bolivia,
Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay is ``significant'' as a result of
persistence in a unique or unusual ecological setting.
Differences in Genetic Characteristics
No data have been located that indicate that the Argentine
population and the population in the remaining range countries are each
significant based on genetics (Villela et al. 2008, pp. 628-635). Our
knowledge across the range countries is sparse with respect to genetic
diversity of the broad-snouted caiman. However, a 2008 study indicates
that genetic flux (genetic flow between members of a species) occurs;
the species remains fairly connected through the major waterways within
its range. River channels are important routes to crocodilian
dispersal. The Paraguay River joins Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and
Argentina, and the populations of this species are connected in part
through this river. The populations of this species are also connected
between Uruguay and Argentina via the Uruguay River, which is the
border between these two countries.
Additionally, a 2006-2007 survey in Brazil found that C.
latirostris is widely distributed throughout the S[atilde]o Francisco
River basin, and its distribution pattern indicates that the
populations within the river basin are not fragmented (Filogonio et al.
2010, p. 964). The genetic variations of broad-snouted caiman were
found to be
[[Page 38171]]
closely related to patterns of these river basins, and indicated that
there was no significant correlation between genetic variation and
genetic distance (Villela et al. 2008, p. 6). This species is not only
a mobile species but is also flexible in its habitat preferences. The
river basins within its range appear to be sufficiently connected,
despite any habitat modifications. There is no other information
available that indicates there are significant differences in the
populations. Based on the best available information, we have
determined that the Argentine population of the broad-snouted caiman
does not have any genetic characteristics that are markedly different
from the population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Gap in the Taxon's Range
The loss of a DPS could result in a significant gap in the range of
a taxon, indicating that a population segment represents a significant
resource warranting conservation under the ESA (61 FR 4724). The Ninth
Circuit Court stated ``[t]he plain language of the second significance
factor does not limit how a gap could be important'' (National
Association of Home Builders v. Norton, 340 F.3d 835, 846 (9th Cir.
2003)). Thus, we consider ways in which the loss of each discrete
population of the broad-snouted caiman might result in a significant
gap in the range of species. Its range is estimated as follows: 28
percent in Argentina, and 72 percent in the remainder of its range (4
percent in Bolivia, 58 percent in Brazil, 8 percent in Paraguay, and 2
percent in Uruguay) (Larriera pers. comm. 2011).
Argentina
We considered whether the loss of the Argentine DPS would
constitute a significant gap in the range of the species. In 2006, the
population of broad-snouted caiman in Argentina was estimated to be 13
percent of the potential global population. The species is distributed
in nine provinces in the northern part of Argentina. It is increasing
its range within Argentina, moving into habitat where it had not been
seen since the caiman ranching program began. It has been observed in a
variety of habitats and waterways including rivers near waterfalls,
freshwater creeks with rocky bottoms, and in agricultural and cattle
impoundments.
In Argentina, human impact on the species has been reduced since
1990 through educational programs and incentives, which have served to
minimize habitat loss. The caiman ranching program (see discussion
under Factor A below) has resulted in improvements in the quality of
the species' habitat (such as the decrease in draining of wetlands),
thereby increasing the range and population size of the species. Its
rate of survival in Argentina far surpasses the normal survival rate of
this species in the remainder of its range due to the ranching program
(described below). Reports indicate that the Argentine population of
this species is increasing. The captive-held stock reported in 2010 was
39,624 (Larriera et al. 2010, p. 1), and the density of caiman surveyed
in the wild has increased substantially (Pi[ntilde]a et al. 2009, pp.
1-5) since surveying began in 1990--in 2010, 7,768 hatchlings were
produced.
Argentina is the only range country for the broad-snouted caiman
that actively manages and conserves the species and its habitat. This
is accomplished by harvesting eggs, hatching the young, raising them to
an age where they are more able to escape predators and other threats,
and returning between 5 and 10 percent of those hatchlings to the wild
(Verdade et al. 2010, p. 20). Each nest in the wild can contain between
18-50 eggs, and in cases where multiple caiman share a nest, up to 129
eggs have been found in one nest (Larriera 2002). Due to their method
of reproducing, the nests are vulnerable to predation, and up to 95
percent mortality can occur, even before hatching (Hutton 1984 in
Larriera et al. 2008, p. 154). This method of reproduction also lends
itself to easy egg collection. When the eggs are removed from the wild,
incubated, and the juveniles are allowed to grow in a captive
environment where they are safe from predators, it greatly improves
their chances of survival.
Experts indicate that returning at least 5 percent of the
hatchlings to the wild increases the species' survivability, as it
mitigates for the high incidence of mortality that occurs in the wild
even prior to hatching (Bolton 1989, Ch. 4, p. 1). Most caiman
mortalities occur either before hatching or during the first few months
after hatching due to factors such as flooding or nest predation
(Bolton 1989, Ch. 4, p. 1). The release of these caiman at a later age
significantly increases their chances of survival, primarily due to the
hatchlings' increased ability to escape predators and their ability to
survive other factors such as nest flooding, fire ants, and exposure to
pesticides. Because Argentina releases hatchlings into the wild after
an age they are most susceptible to predators and flooding events, the
population has a greater chance of survival in the wild than broad-
snouted caiman hatchlings in the other range countries. This increase
in survivability further distinguishes the Argentine population from
rest of the species' range and greatly contributes to the resiliency
(abundance, spatial distribution, and productivity) to the species as a
whole.
Argentina's wild caiman population is also well distributed; in
Argentina the broad-snouted caiman reaches Entre Rios, Misiones, Salta,
Santiago del Estero and Jujuy (Yanosky, 1990, 1992; Larriera, 1993;
Waller and Micucci, 1993; Larriera and Imhof, 2000). Its extensive
distribution within the country is attributed to the fact that it has
more climatic tolerance than other caiman species (Waller and Micucci,
1992). The Argentine population is considered abundant and increasing
compared with the population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
In Argentina, this species is moving into habitat where it had not been
seen in many years, which increases the potential environmental
variability within the range of the species. Argentina's broad-snouted
caiman population helps contribute to the viability of the species
overall, and it is providing a margin of safety for the species to
withstand catastrophic events, strengthening the redundancy of the
species. This expansion allows for adaptations in response to
variations in the environment.
The abundance of this species in Argentina contributes to the
potential diversity of the species, particularly since Argentina
constitutes the southernmost part of its range. Because it is at the
edge of its range, this population may improve its adaptive
capabilities, particularly if there is a significant gradient in
temperature within the range of the species. Because the Argentine
population is more robust than in the other range countries, the loss
of the Argentine population would result in a significant gap in the
range of the species, particularly because it is believed to consist of
over a quarter (approximately 28 percent) of the species' range.
Argentina's active management efforts affect the quality of the
species' habitat, which subsequently contributes to the species'
resiliency. Based on the increase in density as evidenced by the
population counts, the significant increase of hatchlings reared in
captivity and subsequently released, and the expansion in range, we
find that the population of the broad-snouted caiman in Argentina
significantly contributes to the resiliency of the species.
[[Page 38172]]
We found that the success of the caiman ranching program has
created a robust, healthy, sustainable, increasing population in
Argentina. This distinguishes the Argentine population from rest of the
species' range, where it is not being intensely monitored and managed
to the point where it is self-sustaining. The factors in Argentina,
including the increase in density and population counts; large numbers
of caiman collected from the wild, reared in captivity, and
subsequently released; and expansion in range, all contribute to the
resiliency, representation, and redundancy of the species and its
overall viability.
Thus, the loss of the Argentine population would create a
significant gap in the current range of the species. Based on this
evaluation of this population's biological significance, we found that
the broad-snouted caiman in Argentina is significant to the species as
a whole. We, therefore, conclude that the population of broad-snouted
caiman in Argentina is significant under the DPS policy because it
contributes to the redundancy, resilience, and representation of the
species such that the loss of this DPS would result in a significant
gap in the range of this taxon.
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay
Because the species is widely distributed within these countries
and these countries constitute approximately 72 percent of the species'
range, the Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay population is
significant under the DPS policy because it also contributes to the
redundancy, resilience, and representation of the species such that the
loss of this population would also result in a significant gap in the
range of this taxon.
Conclusion on Significance
We have determined, based on the best available information, that
the population of broad-snouted caiman in Argentina is significant to
the taxon and the population in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay
is also significant to the taxon because the loss of each discrete
population segment would create a significant gap in the current range
of the species. Based on this evaluation of each population segment's
significance, we found that each is significant to the species as a
whole.
Conclusion of DPS Analysis
Under the DPS policy, once we have found that a population segment
is discrete and significant, we then evaluate whether the potential DPS
warrants endangered or threatened status under the ESA, considering the
factors enumerated under section 4(a)(1) and the statutory definitions
for an ``endangered species'' and ``threatened species.'' Based on our
evaluation under the DPS Policy, we have established two distinct
population segments of the broad-snouted caiman. The first is the
population in Argentina, and the second is the population in the
remainder of its range: Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. We will
refer to this second population as the ``Northern DPS.'' On the basis
of the best available information, we conclude that each of these two
population segments meets the requirements of our DPS Policy for
discreteness and significance. These two DPS's are each discrete due to
the significant differences in the management of habitat, conservation
status, exploitation, and regulatory mechanisms between the
international boundaries of Argentina and the species in the rest of
its range: Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. These two discrete
population segments are clearly defined by international governmental
boundaries and these other differences.
The robustness of the population in Argentina significantly
contributes to the biological and ecological health and viability of
the species as a whole. Argentina is the only country actively managing
the broad-snouted caiman. It also is the only country actively working
with local people to create financial incentives to protect the broad-
snouted caiman and its habitat. Argentina's implementation of its
ranching program increases the species' survivability success, which
further distinguishes the Argentine population from the rest of the
species' range. The species was reclassified to Appendix II in
Argentina, allowing for commercial trade in accordance with the
provisions of CITES. Due to Argentina's intense management of this
species, the survivability rate of the Argentine population is far
higher than in the other countries within this species' range. This
difference is further supported by the fact that broad-snouted caiman
in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay remains listed in Appendix I
of CITES. Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction which
are or may be affected by trade, while the population in Argentina no
longer meets the criteria for an Appendix I listing.
In summary, we find that these two population segments meet our DPS
policy for significance because the loss of either population would
result in a significant gap in the range of the taxon. Based on our
analysis, we find that these two populations meet the criteria for
discreteness and significance under the DPS Policy due to (a)
differences in management delineated by international boundaries, and
(b) a loss of either population segment (28 percent of its range in
Argentina and 72 percent of its range in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and
Uruguay) would result in a significant gap in the range of the taxon.
Evaluation of Factors Affecting the Species
Section 4(b) of the ESA and regulations promulgated to implement
the listing provisions of the ESA (50 CFR part 424) set forth the
procedures for listing, reclassifying, or removing species from listed
status. We may determine a species to be an endangered or threatened
species because of one or more of the five factors described in section
4(a)(1) of the ESA; we must consider these same five factors in
removing species from listed status. Revisions to the list (adding,
removing, or reclassifying a species) must reflect determinations made
in accordance with these same five factors and the ESA's definitions
for endangered and threatened species. Section 4(b) requires the
determination of whether a species is endangered or threatened to be
based on the best available science. We are to make this determination
after conducting a review of the status of the species and taking into
account any efforts being made by foreign governments to protect the
species.
For species that are already listed as endangered or threatened,
this analysis of threats is an evaluation of both the threats currently
facing the species and the threats that are reasonably likely to affect
the species in the foreseeable future following the delisting or
downlisting and the removal or reduction of the ESA's protections.
Under section 3 of the ESA, a species is ``endangered'' if it is in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range and is ``threatened'' if it is likely to become an endangered
species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant
portion of its range. The word ``species'' also includes any subspecies
or, for vertebrates, distinct population segments.
Following is a range wide threats analysis in which we evaluate
whether the broad-snouted caiman is endangered or threatened in the
Argentine DPS and in the DPS which consists of Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, and Uruguay, which we will refer to as the Northern DPS.
[[Page 38173]]
Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or
Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range
Habitat destruction and modification has increased throughout the
species' range and is now likely the greatest factor affecting the
survival of the broad-snouted caiman (Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18-19).
The overharvest for commercial purposes, rather than habitat
destruction or modification, was the primary reason for the broad-
snouted caiman's inclusion in CITES and subsequently being listed under
the ESA. The analysis of the five factors under the ESA requires an
investigation of both current and future potential factors that may
impact the species, including the present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range. We found that
data on habitat destruction were generally presented separately for
each individual country. Therefore, the following analysis of the
potential threats to the species from habitat destruction or
modification generally first presents the specific information
available for broad-snouted caiman in each country, and then summarizes
the information that is available for the two DPSs.
Argentine DPS
Since the early 1800s, Argentina's economy greatly depended on
cattle grazing; however, over the past 10 years, Argentina has
undergone significant changes in land use. With respect to habitat
modification, some changes have positive effects and some have negative
effects. Although this species has been shown to occupy disturbed
habitat, much of the species' original range in Argentina has been
altered, and significant alteration is expected to occur in the future
due to the conversion of cattle pastures to monocultures such as soy,
which is generally not desirable habitat for the species. In some areas
in Argentina, habitat destruction has significantly increased in recent
years (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19). Argentina has lost substantial
forested areas, and conversion of caiman habitat to other uses is
likely to further affect the broad-snouted caiman's habitat in
Argentina. In some cases, habitat modification actually has positive
effects on the caiman (such as the creation of water impoundments, for
example). Landowners commonly channelize wetlands to increase grazing
land for cattle; however, it is unclear whether this has an overall
positive or negative effect on the species. The practice of drying
swamps (potential caiman habitat) through channeling occurs in its
habitat, particularly for producing soybeans, but alternatively, the
formation of water impoundments may have positive effects (Larriera et
al. 2008, p. 152).
The world market for soy is causing the conversion of pastures to
soy monocultures. Soy is now Argentina's main export crop, and
Argentina is the world's third largest producer of this commodity
(USDA, Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) 2010a, p. 11). Argentina's
shift toward soy has displaced cultivation of many grains and
vegetables as well as beef production. Many established cattle ranches
are being sold to soy investors. For example, in Salta Province,
potential conversion to soy cropland in Northern Argentina may exceed
over one million hectares (USDA FAS 2010b, p. 1). Soy now covers
approximately 16.6 million hectares, more than half the country's
cultivated land (USDA FAS 2010b, p. 10). The large scale production of
soy requires the application of fertilizers and pesticides. Cattle feed
primarily on established introduced grasses but native grasslands also
persist in pastures, especially along wetland edges, which benefits
caiman and its habitat. As a result of this change in habitat use from
traditional cattle grazing to primarily soy production in many areas,
significant changes in the habitat and landscape occur which affect
caiman to the point that its former habitat is no longer suitable.
Adding to this problem of habitat conversion is that Argentina's
management of its resources is decentralized. Provincial and municipal
governments have autonomy, property rights are respected, and federal
authority is relatively limited. This is particularly evident in
control over property with respect to the conservation of natural
resources, land use, and protection of the environment. In this
decentralized system, there is very little comprehensive land use
planning at all levels of government. Regulatory mechanisms that exist
at the national and provincial levels are seldom coordinated and are
sometimes contradictory and inefficient.
Although habitat conversion is currently impacting the species,
suitable broad-snouted caiman appears to exist, and the species is
expanding into new sites, in part due to intense management of this
species through Argentina's caiman ranching programs. For example, as
of 2004, surveys indicated that the broad-snouted caiman population in
Santa Fe Province increased 320 percent since the project began
(Larriera and Imhof 2006). Observed wild population densities increased
from an average of between 2 and 8 individuals per km in 1990, to
between 20 and 120 individuals per km during the 2008-2009 survey
period (Larriera and Siroski 2010, p. 2). The distribution of the wild
population has expanded into areas from which the species had formerly
disappeared (Larriera et al. 2005).
Increases have been observed in the relative abundance of the
species in Argentina due in part to active management programs (see
Factor D discussion). These caiman conservation and public awareness
programs have resulted in less habitat alteration (e.g., burned grass)
and less drained marshland for cattle production in the nesting areas
(Larriera and Imhof 2006). While these programs are helping, increases
in habitat conversion to agriculture, roads and transportation, and
infrastructure to transport crops such as soy continue (USDA FAS 2010b,
p. 2). Without additional incentives and intervention, suitable habitat
for this species will decrease. Although it is mitigated by provincial
governments through the caiman ranching program, habitat destruction
and modification in Argentina are likely to continue in the foreseeable
future. Despite the intense management of this species in Argentina, we
conclude that the present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range continues to be a factor affecting
the broad-snouted caiman.
Summary of Factor A for the Argentine DPS
In most of the range of this species, the habitat threats are very
similar; however, a country's management actions (refer to Factor D
discussion) affect the status of the species. In Argentina, habitat
conversion to agriculture continues to cause habitat degradation within
the broad-snouted caiman range, although this is being mitigated
through the caiman ranching program. Habitat conversion is expected to
increase and further degrade this species' habitat. The population
numbers in the wild have significantly increased since this species was
listed. Data collected on the distribution and abundance of the species
indicate that the species' range has expanded, and overall population
numbers appear to be increasing (Larriera and Imhof 2006). As of 2004,
surveys indicate that the broad-snouted caiman population in Santa Fe
Province, Argentina, increased 320 percent since the project began
(Larriera and Imhof 2006). Observed wild population densities here
increased from an average of 2 to 8 individuals per
[[Page 38174]]
km in 1990, to 20 to 120 individuals per km in 2008-2009 (Larriera and
Siroski 2010; p. 2). The distribution of the wild population has also
expanded into areas from which the species had formerly disappeared
(Larriera et al. 2005). However, the degradation and destruction of
this species' habitat continues to occur in Argentina. Therefore, based
on the best available information, we find that the population in
Argentina continues to be threatened by the destruction, modification,
or curtailment of its habitat now and in the future.
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay DPS (Northern DPS)
In Bolivia, the broad-snouted caiman is at the edge of its range.
Broad-snouted caiman have been found in the Pando Department in the
Pilcomayo River area, a tributary of the Paraguay River, and in the
Tarija department. Here, key threats, particularly in broad-snouted
caiman habitat, include loss, conversion, and degradation of forests
and other natural habitats and pollution of aquatic ecosystems (Byers
et al. 2006, p. vi). Particular to this species, both agriculture and
pollution have been indicated to be significant threats. In Bolivia,
vast areas have been drained for agricultural purposes (also see the
discussion under Factor E).
During the 1980s and early 1990s, deforestation in lowland Bolivia
exceeded 1,500 km\2\ (579 mi\2\) per year (Steininger et al. 2001, pp.
856-866). Currently, about 300,000 ha (741,316 ac) of forest is lost
each year for a variety of reasons, including expansion of agriculture
due both to large-scale industrial agriculture and to small-scale
development and cultivation; large-scale infrastructure projects
(roads, dams, energy infrastructure); expanding coca production; forest
fires; illegal logging; and climate change causing changes in
geographical and altitudinal distribution of species and ecosystems
(Byers et al. 2006, p. vi).
Factors such as low land prices and economic policies promoting an
export economy have led to a rapid increase in the growth of the
private agricultural sector (Pacheco 1998). Both large-scale and small-
scale farmers contribute to the expansion of the agriculture and
livestock frontier, and both thrive in the near absence of regulatory
oversight and control (Byers et al. 2008, p. 22). In Bolivia, large
tracts of land have been cleared particularly for sugarcane plantations
and soybean production (Aide and Grau 2004, p. 1915; Pacheco 2004, pp.
205-225). The highest abundance values of this species were recorded in
``atajados'' (dikes) and artificial ponds. The deforestation to the
north and east of Santa Cruz is primarily due to large-scale agro-
industry, whereas the areas of deforestation around Pando and Beni tend
to be mainly a result of small-scale development and clearing. Large-
scale agriculture responds mainly to external market demands (e.g.,
biofuels, sugarcane, soy; principally from the United States, Brazil,
and Argentina), while smaller farmers respond mainly to the domestic
market.
The government actively promotes the development of infrastructure
projects in the Bolivian lowlands, in particular extensive road
construction and improvement (Byers et al. 2008 p. 22). Road projects
in northwest Bolivia are being considered, including paving of the
``Northern Corridor,'' which is part of the Peru-Brazil-Bolivia hub of
the Initiative for Integration of Regional Infrastructure in South
America (IIRSA, http://www.iirsa.org).
Contamination of water bodies due to sugar mills, which empty their
waste into the Rio Grande (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 114), also
occurs. Sugar mills are commonly known to produce high levels of air
and solid waste pollutants as byproducts (U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency [EPA] 1997, 26 pp). Waste water from sugar mills can
rapidly deplete available oxygen in water creating an inhospitable
environment for aquatic life and for species that depend on aquatic
environments. Researchers believe that one population of broad-snouted
caiman is probably not reproductively active due to water pollution
(Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 115). In the Bermejo River sub-basin in
Tarija, Bolivia, there was an absence of nests and a low number of
individuals recorded during nest counts. This particular area borders
wetlands and estuaries in Argentina, where higher quality suitable
habitat is available for the species (OSDE 2005b, p. 2) and is likely
less polluted and disturbed by humans. Because the Bermejo River sub-
basin in Bolivia faces threats due to sugarcane plantations and
contamination from sugar mill activities, it is not likely to sustain a
healthy population of broad-snouted caiman.
Although natural resource managers recognize the importance of
wetlands (Byers et al. 2008, p. 14), economic considerations usually
outweigh concerns regarding habitat loss and destruction in Bolivia.
The activities described under this factor, such as agricultural
production and expansion, sugar mill activities, roads, and other
infrastructure development, affect broad-snouted caiman habitat. Its
habitat is primarily being affected due to agriculture and pollution.
Based on the above factors, we find that the present or threatened
destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range
continues to be a factor affecting this species in Bolivia.
In Brazil, agriculture, pollution, and hydroelectric dams have been
indicated to be significant factors affecting the species (Verdade et
al. 2010, p. 1). In this country, vast areas have been drained for
agricultural purposes. The effects from agricultural activities include
destruction of nests and eggs by machinery and loss of access to
traditional nesting or feeding sites) leading to habitat loss or
fragmentation. Pollution has been a considerable problem in rivers that
flow through Brazil's large cities. S[atilde]o Paulo, Brazil's largest
city, is in the center of the species' range in Brazil. The species
exists here in artificial reservoirs, ponds, marshes, and small
wetlands. Construction of large hydroelectric dams (Verdade et al.
2010, p. 19) to support Brazil's human population has been indicated to
be one of the primary threats to broad-snouted caiman. Most of the
natural wetlands of the Paran[aacute] and S[atilde]o Francisco River
systems in Brazil have been dammed for these hydroelectric stations.
Construction of dams can have severe impacts on ecosystems (McCartney
et al. 2001, p. v). For example, a dam blocks the flow of sediment
downstream. During construction of dams, disturbance to soils at the
construction site is one of the largest concerns. This leads to
downstream erosion and increased sediment buildup in a reservoir.
Because the construction of the Jupifi and Ilha Solteira Dams in
the 1970s caused the loss of a significant amount of floodplains of the
Paran[aacute] River, a survey was conducted prior to construction of
the Porto Primavera Dam (also known as the Engineer S[eacute]rgio Motta
Dam). The Porto Primavera Dam is 28 km (17 mi) upstream from the
confluence of the Paranapanema and Paran[aacute] Rivers. This dam
created the Porto Primavera Reservoir and was filled in two stages: The
first in December 1998, and the second in March 2001. The purpose of
the survey in 1995 was to determine what species would be affected by
the construction. The survey was done in the Paran[aacute] River basin
between S[atilde]o Paulo and Mato Grosso do Sul states. The number of
caiman nests found during the survey indicated that at least 630
reproductive females were present at that time. The presence of so many
nests suggested a large total population (Mour[atilde]o and Campos
1995, pp. 27-29) in that area.
[[Page 38175]]
After the study was completed, a recommendation was made to create a
reserve to protect habitat downstream of the dam; however, it is
unclear whether a reserve was established as a result of the dam being
constructed.
With the construction of Porto Primavera Dam, the last floodplains
of the Paran[aacute] River within the state of S[atilde]o Paulo
disappeared, and with them, the wild animals dependent on wetlands for
survival also disappeared. Lakes, swamps, and seasonally flooded areas
contribute to hydrological ecosystem processes by retaining water and
mitigating flooding. These wetlands and lakes are important ecosystem
components and are particularly important to the broad-snouted caiman.
When altered, they no longer are capable of supporting their unique
assemblages of species and maintaining important ecological processes
and functions upon which the caiman relies. Caiman use the S[atilde]o
Francisco River main channel and its tributaries as dispersion routes;
however, populations of individuals of all age and sizes occur mainly
in lakes, ponds, or swamps. Studies on the impact of the construction
of large hydroelectric stations and how they affect the density and
reproduction of broad-snouted caiman populations were conducted using
aerial surveys (Mour[atilde]o and Campos 1995, pp. 27-29). The surveys
indicated major damage of the habitat due to these dams. An unusual
finding with respect to caiman was that researchers found that the
destruction of floating vegetation is particularly destructive. This is
likely because floating vegetation is used by caiman for nest
construction.
In 2001, the government of Brazil launched a plan for the
S[atilde]o Francisco River basin in order to minimize human impacts and
implement restoration efforts (Andrade 2002 in Filogonio et al. 2010,
p. 962). This was a huge undertaking involving federal and local
governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), universities, and
the public. An initial report was issued in 2005 that indicated that
progress had been made in terms of identifying these four issues to be
addressed: (1) River basin and coastal zone environmental analysis; (2)
public and stakeholder participation; (3) organizational structure
development; and (4) watershed management program formulation. As of
2005, the studies and projects had all been completed (http://www.oas.org/osde, accessed March 9, 2011). However, the implementation
process was still underway as of 2011 (http://www.ana.gov.br/gefsf,
accessed March 9, 2011).
Caiman habitat is still severely degraded in Brazil. Broad-snouted
caiman in the S[atilde]o Francisco River basin occur not only in
preserved habitats but also in habitats altered by humans. This attests
to the species' highly flexible nature. Researchers even found broad-
snouted caiman in sewage and urbanized areas, showing that the species
is fairly resistant to human impacts and that habitat modification has
varied effects on the species' distribution. The data indicated that
habitat modification may be a variable in determining the small size of
these natural populations, rather than affecting the species'
distribution pattern, at least in Brazil (Filogonio et al. 2010, p.
964). A 2006-2007 survey found that most of the surveyed sites
presented some degree of human impact (Filogonio et al. 2010, p. 962).
Habitat modification included: Conversion to pasture in 46 surveyed
localities (72 percent), roads (25 localities; 39 percent),
urbanization (23 localities; 36 percent) and monocultures (Filogonio et
al. 2010, p. 962). Of the areas surveyed, broad-snouted caiman was
present (positively identified as broad-snouted caiman rather than a
different caiman species or unknown caiman species) in 39 localities
surveyed (61 percent), and was widely distributed along the river
basin. Its presence was detected in all lentic water body types, in the
three biomes: Cerrado, Caatinga, and Atlantic Forest (Filogonio et al.
2010, pp. 963-964). However, the researchers did not attempt to
estimate population size. They observed a number of populations with
low numbers of individuals, which were scattered throughout the survey
sites. During 2006 and 2007 surveys, researchers found the presence of
caiman species in only 17 municipalities in 64 locations along the
S[atilde]o Francisco River basin in Brazil.
The density data found in Brazil were similar to that found by
Borteiro (2006, 2008), who also found broad-snouted caiman widespread
in Uruguay, occurring in 29 of the 36 localities surveyed (81 percent
of the sampled areas). Caiman in Brazil were observed in lotic
(actively moving water) habitats, and considering that river channels
are important routes to crocodilian dispersal, it is logical to predict
not only physical movement of Caiman latirostris throughout its range,
but also genetic flux within the river basin. The distribution pattern
in Brazil indicates that the populations within the river basin are not
fragmented, but seem to exist in low numbers. Despite this data,
information regarding population trend data and the health of the
species overall in Brazil is lacking. The construction of hydroelectric
dams and associated habitat degradation such as pollution and
environmental degradation is currently affecting broad-snouted caiman
and its habitat. Pollution is a severe problem; caiman habitat overlaps
S[atilde]o Paulo, Brazil's largest city, and the polluted rivers that
flow through Brazil's large cities.
Although a plan was initiated in 2001 to address issues associated
with the construction of the dam in central caiman habitat, 10 years
later, there is no evidence that caiman habitat has improved in Brazil,
nor does it appear that caiman are a main concern of the plan. There is
very little current information available regarding this species in
Brazil. Based on the best available scientific and commercial
information available, we find that the present or threatened
destruction, modification, or curtailment of this species' habitat is a
factor affecting the species.
In Paraguay, no recent data are available specifically for this
species. However, we do know that over the past 60 years, widespread
and uncontrolled deforestation practices have continued throughout
Paraguay, particularly in the eastern region (World Land Trust 2009, p.
1). In 1945, 8.8 million ha (21,745,273 ac) of forest covered this
region, but currently it is estimated that less than 1.6 million ha
(3,953,686 ac) remain (Huerta 2011, p. 1). Most of Paraguay's tropical
moist forests are in the eastern region of the country near the
Paran[aacute] River. This river is 4,880 km (3,032 mi) in length and
extends from the confluence of the Grande and Parana[iacute]ba rivers
in southern Brazil. It runs through the Atlantic rainforest, also known
as Mata Atl[acirc]ntica. The Atlantic Forest stretches from northeast
Brazil along the Brazilian Atlantic coastline into Uruguay, inland into
the northeast portion of Argentina and eastern Paraguay, and partially
overlaps the range of the broad-snouted caiman. Imhof (unpubl. 2006)
estimated that 7 percent of the species' range is in Paraguay. Within
Paraguay, the Atlantic Forest has been under increasing pressure from
development. In Paraguay, the Atlantic Forest is reduced to one large
tract, San Rafael, and increasingly numerous scattered and fragmented
small patches. More than half of the original area of the Atlantic
rainforests had been degraded by the turn of the last century, and more
recently only one percent was found to be still in its original state
(Wilson 1988, in Rivas et al. 1999, chapter 5). Conservative estimates
have placed the
[[Page 38176]]
remaining forest cover in Paraguay at approximately 6 percent of its
original cover (IUCN 1988a). Factors affecting this remaining forest
cover include fragmentation and acceleration of large-scale agriculture
and ranching projects, commercial logging, and the construction of
hydroelectric dams such as the Itaipu hydroelectric dam on the borders
of Paraguay and Brazil (Rivas et al. 1999, ch. 5).
Habitat destruction has increased throughout the species' range in
Paraguay, and is believed to be one of the greatest factors affecting
its survival in Paraguay (Verdade 1998, pp. 18-19). Approximately 98
percent of Paraguay's population lives in Paraguay's eastern region,
with a population density of 18.6 per km\2\, compared with 0.2 per
km\2\ in the western (Chaco) region. A contributing factor is that in
the eastern region, the soil is more suitable for cultivating crops;
therefore, cattle production, forestry products, and agricultural crops
are widespread in the range of this species in Paraguay. Paraguay's
main agricultural exports are soybeans and cotton (Harcourt and Sayer
1996; USDA FAS 2010, p. 2). Although overharvest of caiman for
commercial purposes was the primary reason for this species being
listed under the ESA, rather than habitat destruction or modification,
factors affecting the species have changed. Now, the largest threat
appears to be habitat destruction or modification due to agriculture
and development of urban infrastructure, which still occur to a large
extent in Paraguay, particularly within the range of broad-snouted
caiman. Paraguay implemented a Zero Deforestation Law as of 2004;
however prior to that law, its rate of deforestation was the second
highest in the world (WWF 2006, p. 1). Despite the enactment of this
law, the best available information indicates that this habitat
destruction and modification still significantly affect this species.
We have no indication that conditions have improved in Paraguay since
this species was listed under the ESA; rather, habitat loss has
increased. Therefore, we find that the present and threatened
destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat in Paraguay
continues to be a factor affecting broad-snouted caiman.
In Uruguay, very little information has been collected about how
habitat degradation affects the broad-snouted caiman. Based on
available information, current factors affecting the species' habitat
in Uruguay are likely due to agriculture and cattle ranching, which
occur within this species' range. Cattle and sheep farming in Uruguay
occur in 60 percent of Uruguay's land (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations [FAO], p. 4). Other agricultural
activities, such as fodder for cattle and crops such as rice, consist
of approximately 20 percent. Secondary, related effects related to
agriculture are habitat degradation and pollution due to pesticide use,
erosion, and altered ecosystems. Surveys conducted in the early 2000s
indicate that caiman exist in manmade habitats in northwestern Uruguay.
However, the current amount of suitable habitat for this species in
Uruguay is unknown. Researchers suggest that the apparent increase in
this species' population (discussed by Borteiro et al.) may be due to
the construction of agriculture impoundments, which provide habitat for
broad-snouted caiman (Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248). In the area
surveyed to determine caiman presence and abundance, impoundments were
being used mainly for irrigation of rice (69 percent) and sugar cane
crops (31 percent) in the [Ntilde]aqui[ntilde][aacute] stream basin. In
the Lenguazo stream basin, 80 percent was used for irrigation of sugar
cane and 20 percent was used for other food crops.
Two other factors that likely affect caiman habitat here are
drought and hydroelectric dams (United Nations Environment Programme
[UNEP] 2004, pp. 78-85; Borteiro et al. 2008, p. 248; Verdade et al.
2010, p. 20). Uruguay has experienced severe drought in the past few
years (IPS NEWS 2011), which has had a significant effect on
agriculture and cattle production, and this likely also affects caiman
habitat. The construction and existence of hydroelectric dams to
generate electricity may be an additional factor affecting the broad-
snouted caiman (UNEP 2004, pp. 78-85). Uruguay is highly dependent on
hydroelectricity, and these hydroelectric dams are within broad-snouted
caiman habitat. Although we know these activities occur within the
range of the broad-snouted caiman in Uruguay, there is very little
information regarding the status of the species in Uruguay. We have no
evidence that there has been any change to the status of the species in
Uruguay. We do not know population trends of this species in Uruguay,
and agricultural activities, drought, and hydroelectric dams affect
this species' habitat. There is no information to indicate that habitat
modification or destruction has decreased such that the population
trend is stable or increasing. Researchers here recommend surveys of
broad-snouted caiman at a larger scale in northern Uruguay to assess
the usage of manmade habitats by caiman in order to apply this
knowledge to caiman conservation and management strategies. Given the
lack of evidence that indicates that Uruguay's population of broad-
snouted caiman has either increased or has stabilized since its
inclusion under the ESA, we find that the present or threatened
destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range
continues to be a factor affecting the species in Uruguay.
Summary of Factor A for Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay (Northern
DPS)
In most of the range of this species, the habitat threats are very
similar; however, a country's management actions (refer to discussion
under Factor D) may affect the status of the species. In Bolivia,
Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, although these countries are making
progress with conservation laws with respect to habitat modification
and destruction (see Factor D discussion), habitat loss continues to
occur. Increasing human populations, development of hydroelectric
projects, and draining of wetlands have caused habitat degradation.
Conversion of broad-snouted caiman habitat to agricultural plantations
commonly occurs in these countries, and there is no evidence that there
are adequate management plans for this species in place in these
countries. Although the species is widespread, we have no information
to indicate that the status of the species has changed in these four
countries, and there is little to no population trend information
available in these countries. Based on a review of the best available
information, we find the destruction, modification, or curtailment of
its habitat or range in these four countries is a continued threat to
the species.
Factor B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or
Educational Purposes
The overharvest for commercial purposes was the primary reason for
the broad-snouted caiman's inclusion in Appendix I of CITES and
subsequent listing under the ESA. The species suffered due to effects
of unregulated exploitation between 1930 and 1980. Protections were put
in place because the species had suffered substantial population
declines throughout its range due to overexploitation through the
commercial crocodilian skin trade. Under this factor, we examine how
overutilization within each country has changed since the species was
listed under the ESA, and then we discuss this factor with respect to
international trade and its regulation through CITES.
[[Page 38177]]
Argentine DPS
In Argentina, illegal hunting was widespread through the late
1980s, but decreased in the early 1990s (Micucci and Waller 1995, pp.
81-108) due to the proliferation of caiman ranching programs and the
enforcement of national and provincial regulations (see Factor D
discussion). Between the 1940s and early 1990s, reports indicate that
more than 700,000 caiman skins were produced from Corrientes Province
in Argentina (estimated in Micucci and Waller (1995) in Pi[ntilde]a et
al. 2010, p. 4). Some of these skins were illegally obtained; however,
since 1998, there has been no report of illegal hunting (Larriera et
al. 2008, p. 143). Since the species was listed both under CITES and
the ESA, a significant change in public perception and awareness
regarding this species has occurred. Now, the species is managed
sustainably in Argentina (Jelden 2010, pers. comm.; Verdade et al.
2010, p. 19; Woodward 2010, p. 3). Local people participate in caiman
ranching programs in which they locate nests and harvest eggs from
these nests (Larriera et al. 2008; Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19) and take
them to captive-rearing facilities. The harvest is monitored and
documented by the government-registered ranching programs. These
individuals, primarily cattle-ranchers, are financially compensated for
the eggs. The communities within the range of the broad-snouted caiman
have an understanding of the caiman ranching program, and they no
longer illegally hunt these animals because individuals earn an income
from harvesting eggs. This is due in part to a long-standing public
awareness program and significant community involvement in protecting
this species (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 145).
The Government of Argentina has had a long history of research and
active management of its population of the broad-snouted caiman,
particularly since 1990. Currently, there are seven ranching programs
registered with the federal government in Argentina. Three of them
function as educational programs, with no commercial exploitation. The
noncommercial ranching operations are in Entre R[iacute]os, Chaco, and
Corrientes Provinces. There are four commercial ranching programs: two
in Formosa Province, one in Corrientes Province, and one in Santa Fe
Province. The ranching programs in Formosa, Corrientes, and Chaco are
for both the broad-snouted caiman and yacare caiman. The programs in
Entre R[iacute]os and Santa Fe are for only broad-snouted caiman. Each
ranching program showed an increase in the number of eggs collected
since the program began. This indicates an upward trend in population
numbers.
Ranching Programs in Argentina
On cattle ranches in Argentina, landowners commonly channelize the
wetlands to increase grazing land for cattle. Although such conversion
of wetlands for cattle grazing may result in suitable habitat being
available for caiman because it creates water impoundments, most
habitat preferred by the caiman (swamps with heavy vegetation) is
considered unproductive agricultural land. In the past, the swampy
areas had been drained for conversion to agricultural lands. However,
by placing an economic value on preserving caiman habitat through
compensation from the ranching program, habitat destruction can be
reduced. Additionally, by providing monetary compensation to ranch
employees for each nest they locate, there is incentive for ranch
owners and employees to protect the wetlands and caiman nesting areas
(Larriera 2011, p. 90). As of 2006, there had been a 30 percent
increase in the caiman nesting areas on cattle ranches where caiman egg
harvest occurs (Larriera et al. 2006). For example, the caiman nesting
area of the Lucero Ranch (Estancia) in Santa Fe Province was 830 ha
(2,051 ac) in 1990, and increased to 1,060 ha (2,619 ac) in 2004.
Larriera suggests that one reason for the increased population density
may be due to a decline in the practice of burning and drying wetlands
for economic reasons, in addition to the dispersion of female broad-
snouted caiman into new habitat due to the caiman ranching program.
In the wild, as many as 60 to 70 percent of the eggs do not hatch
(Smith and Webb 1985; Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124). Estimated survival
of hatchlings in the wild has been as low as 10 to 20 percent,
depending on environmental conditions (e.g., frost and predation can
alter survival (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 109); see discussion under
Factor C below). In order to increase survival rate of American
alligators, the practice of egg collection has been implemented to
preclude embryo mortality due to factors such as depredation, flooding,
and desiccation (Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124). In the Argentina
ranching program, to increase survivability, young caiman are
reintroduced to their former nesting site after they have passed
critical life stages in which they are more susceptible to factors such
as predation and nest flooding (Larriera 2003). Removal and incubation
of eggs taken from the wild increases hatchling survivability because
the larger the caiman is, the greater likelihood it has of long-term
survival in the wild (Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124).
High mortality can occur during the first few weeks of incubation
in the wild; one study found that highest embryo mortality of alligator
eggs occurred between days 7 and 16 of incubation (Joanen and McNease
1987 in Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124). In the caiman ranching programs
in Argentina, the practice is to remove all eggs from all the nests in
collection areas that are accessible and not flooded, burned,
depredated, or necessary for survival studies (Larriera 1995). Between
the months of December and January, eggs are collected soon after
laying. Caiman managers pay cattle ranch employees for each located
nest, and each nest is assigned a number. The nests are marked so that
young hatched and reared in captivity can be returned to the same area.
Each ranching program maintains records of how many eggs are collected,
how many are reared, and how many individuals are later released back
into the wild (Larriera et al 2008, pp. 158, 164).
Artificial incubation has been demonstrated to not only enhance
hatch success but also early development of hatchlings (Joanen and
McNease 1987 in Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124; Ferguson 1985). For
example, small temperature variances can be used to accelerate the
growth of hatchlings. Animals reared at a slightly higher temperature
(22.4 [deg]C; 72.3 [deg]F) grow faster than those maintained at a lower
temperature (18.2 [deg]C; 65 [deg]F) (Pi[ntilde]a and Larriera 2002,
pp. 387-391). For broad-snouted caiman, eggs incubated at 29 or 31
[deg]C (84-88 [deg]F) produced 100 percent females, while at 33 [deg]C
(91 [deg]F) 100 percent males were produced.
Young are marked by removing selected caudal scutes corresponding
to hatch year and nest origin. Hatchlings are raised for 9 months in
concrete pools until November, when some are removed for reintroduction
to the original nest site. The decision on how many young will be
retained in captivity for commercial production; as well as how many
will be reintroduced to the wild depends on the status of the wild
population in the area from which the eggs were harvested. Argentina
provides reports to the CITES Secretariat in accordance with CITES
Resolution Conf. 11.16 (See Larriera et al 2010; Larriera et al 2008a).
If there is a high population density in the wild, more young are
retained and raised for commercial purposes.
[[Page 38178]]
Chaco Province
El Cachap[eacute] Wildlife Refuge (Refugio de Vida Silvestre El
Cachap[eacute]) is a conservation and sustainable-use project developed
through an agreement between a private landowner and Fundaci[oacute]n
Vida Silvestre Argentina in Chaco Province. The project was established
in 1996, for the ranching of both yacare and broad-snouted caiman
(Cossu et al. 2007, p. 330), and it also conducts ecotourism
activities. El Cachap[eacute] is in the center of the harvest area, and
encompasses 1,760 hectares (ha) (4,349 acres (ac)). Between 1998 and
2004, the Chaco program collected 4,867 eggs and released 1,236
yearlings (Larriera and Imhof 2006) within the Chaco Province. A
population survey conducted over 60,000 ha (148,263 ac) of the harvest
area in Chaco Province indicates that there was an average density of
4.0 individuals of Caiman latirostris per km during the 1999-2000 study
period (Prado 2005), but we are unaware of any additional data
collected since that time. This conservation ranching program is
working towards increasing population numbers of this species in the
Chaco Province (Verdade 2010, pp. 18-22).
Corrientes Province
An experimental program in Corrientes Province was established in
2004, based on an agreement between a company called Yacar[eacute]
Por[aacute] S.A. and the Direcci[oacute]n Provincial de Recursos
Naturales (Provincial Directorate of Natural Resources, Corrientes
Province). The experimental program initially included population
surveys to determine the feasibility and biological sustainability of a
commercial ranching program and a small-scale collection of eggs
(Jenkins et al. 2006, p. 27; Micucci and Waller 2005). The numbers of
broad-snouted caiman nests in three study areas were surveyed. In
nesting seasons 2004-2005 and 2005-2006, one area maintained its number
of nests and the other two areas showed increases resulting in a total
of 165 nests observed in the first season; and 265 nests observed in
the second season (Larriera et al. 2008). The first egg collection was
conducted in 2005 (Jenkins et al. 2006, p. 27). In late 2010, 500
hatchlings were released. As of 2010, there were 4,736 hatchlings and
12,793 individuals over one year in age in captivity (Larriera 2010, p.
1).
Formosa Province
The program in Formosa Province (in the most northern part of the
species' range in Argentina) was established in 2001, based on an
agreement between a company called Caimanes de Formosa S.R.L. and the
Direcci[oacute]n de Fauna y Parques de Formosa (Directorate of Wildlife
and Parks of Formosa) under the Ministry of Production (Jenkins et al.
2006). The first egg collection in Formosa Province was in 2002. The
Formosa program collected 13,050 eggs between 2002 and 2004, and
released 1,265 young (Larriera and Imhof 2006). Surveys of the combined
yacare caiman and broad-snouted caiman populations in Formosa have
indicated that the wild population densities have increased from a
range of 2.3 to 66 individuals per km in 2002 (Siroski 2003; Siroski
and Pi[ntilde]a 2006), to 22 to 238 individuals per km in 2008
(Pi[ntilde]a et al. 2008).
Santa Fe Province
The Santa Fe program (in the southernmost part of the species'
range in Argentina) is the largest of the approved programs; this
province has the largest population of broad-snouted caiman in the wild
in Argentina. Proyecto Yacar[eacute], in the province of Santa Fe,
Argentina, was established in 1990, with an agreement between the
Ministry of Agriculture of the Province of Santa Fe and a
nongovernmental organization called Mutual del Personal Civil de la
Naci[oacute]n (Benefit of Civil Personnel of the Nation) to improve the
conservation status of the broad-snouted caiman and its wetland
ecosystem (Larriera and Imhof 2000). The northern part of the Province
of Santa Fe contains 80 percent of the wild broad-snouted caiman
population in Argentina. Early on, the Caiman Specialist Group (CSG)
identified ranching programs in Argentina as a high priority for
species conservation (Verdade 1998, pp. 18-19). It described the
program in Santa Fe Province as a model for other Argentine provinces
where habitat still remains and the wild population is large. In 1999,
the management for sustainable use of broad-snouted caiman reached a
commercial scale (Verdade 1998, pp. 18-19).
Between 1990 and 2004, the Santa Fe program harvested 1,410 of
1,945 identified nests and produced 35,197 hatchlings from 47,948 eggs
(Larriera and Imhof 2006). Of the hatchlings that survived, 15,120
yearlings were returned to the wild and 14,046 were retained for
commercial use (Larriera and Imhof 2006). The number of nests found in
the collection area increased from 14 (1990-1991) to 439 (2003-2004),
resulting in an increase from 372 to 12,031 eggs collected per year
during the same time period (Larriera and Imhof 2006). Mean clutch size
in Santa Fe Province has been reported to be 35 eggs per nest, and the
natural incubation period is around 70 days (Larriera and Imhof 2000).
As of 2004, monitoring the wild population in the collection areas
indicated that the broad-snouted caiman population in Santa Fe
increased 320 percent since the project began (Larriera and Imhof
2006). Observed wild population densities increased from an average of
2 to 8 individuals per km in 1990, to 20 to 120 individuals per km in
2008-2009 (Larriera and Siroski 2010, p. 2). This program has resulted
in increased numbers of broad-snouted caiman in the wild in areas
surveyed and in an expansion of nesting areas (Larriera and Imhof 2000,
2006; Larriera et al. 2006). The distribution of the wild population
has expanded into areas from which the species had formerly disappeared
(Larriera et al. 2005).
International Trade and Regulation Under CITES
CITES provides varying degrees of protection to more than 32,000
species of animals and plants that are traded as whole specimens,
parts, or products. CITES regulates the import, export, and reexport of
specimens, parts, and products of CITES-listed plant and animal species
(also see discussion under Factor D). Trade is managed through a system
of permits and certificates that are issued by the designated CITES
Management and Scientific Authorities of each CITES Party (http://www.cites.org). In the United States, the Scientific and Management
Authorities reside in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Under CITES, a species is listed in one of three appendices;
listing in each Appendix has a corresponding level of protection
relative to the regulation of trade through different permit
requirements (CITES 2007). Appendix II allows for commercial trade and
includes species requiring regulation of international trade in order
to ensure that trade of the species is compatible with the species'
survival. At times a species may be listed as endangered under the ESA,
and concurrently listed under Appendix II of CITES, rather than the
more restrictive Appendix I, which does not allow trade of wild
specimens for primarily commercial purposes. Although CITES Appendix II
allows for commercial trade, in order for specimens of this species to
be traded internationally, a determination must be made by the
Management and Scientific Authorities of the country of export that the
specimens were legally obtained; the living specimen will be prepared
and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or
cruel treatment, and the export will not be
[[Page 38179]]
detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild. CITES Appendix
I includes species that are threatened with extinction and which are or
may be affected by trade. Appendix I has a further restriction that a
CITES import permit must be issued by the importing country after
making findings that the specimen will not be used for primarily
commercial purposes, that the import will be for purposes which are not
detrimental to the survival of the species, and that the proposed
recipient of living specimen is suitably equipped to house and care for
it.
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) at UNEP manages a
CITES Trade Database on behalf of the CITES Secretariat. Each Party to
CITES is responsible for compiling and submitting annual reports to the
CITES Secretariat regarding their country's international trade in
species protected under CITES. The trade database (http://www.unep-wcmc.org/citestrade) indicates that between 2000 and 2009, 11,837
broad-snouted caiman parts and products (primarily leather and skins),
plus an additional 1,210 kilograms (2,662 pounds) of such parts and
products were exported. The vast majority of exports were from
Argentina, and the database did not indicate any trends in the trade
data to cause concern. There were very few exports from the other range
countries during the period reviewed.
With this final reclassification rule and accompanying 4(d) rule,
the DPS of broad-snouted caiman in Argentina will be listed as
threatened, and commercial exports of broad-snouted caiman products
from Argentina to the United States will be allowed without an ESA
permit, provided that certain conditions are met. We do not believe
this potential increase in international trade is likely to threaten or
endanger wild broad-snouted caiman based on Argentina's management and
monitoring of the caiman ranching program. However, the DPS of broad-
snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay will continue
to be listed as endangered under the ESA, and the species' parts and
products from these range countries will still be regulated under CITES
Appendix I.
Summary of Factor B for Argentine DPS
In Argentina, the legal harvest does not appear to have negative
impacts on the species based on reported harvest, nest counts, and egg
harvest trends (Larriera et al. 2010, pp. 1-2; Larriera and Siroski
2010, pp. 1-5). We believe that adequate protections are in place under
Federal and provincial law and regulations in Argentina. Broad-snouted
caiman that hatched in captivity and were released near their former
nesting site have successfully matured and reproduced in the wild
(Larriera et al. 2006). For example, during the summers of 2001 and
2002, seven females released as part of Proyecto Yacar[eacute] were
recaptured while attending their nests. The females were between 9 and
10 years old at the time of capture. Their clutch sizes and hatching
success were similar to those of wild females of unknown age also
captured during the season. This indicates that released ranched
yearlings can survive and reproduce at least as successfully as their
wild counterparts, and have a greater rate of survival.
Research also indicates that this practice of releasing a
percentage of captive-hatched juveniles is a valuable management tool
for crocodilian species. Mortality of eggs and hatchlings in the wild
can exceed 95 percent (Hutton 1984 in Larriera et al. 2008, p. 154).
Releasing them into the wild at an age of 8 to 10 months, rather than
at hatching, has been shown to enhance their chances of survival (Elsey
et al. 1992, p. 671). Survivorship in juvenile alligators has been
shown to be a function of size, with survivorship increasing as size
increases (Woodward et al. 1989, p. 124).
Egg collection and density surveys indicate that wild populations
in the collection areas are increasing (Larriera et al. 2010). Despite
the fact that all accessible nests are harvested in the collection
areas the Santa Fe program has resulted in higher population densities
of broad-snouted caiman in the wild. Increased reproduction in released
animals, a greater number of nests located and harvested, and the
observation of broad-snouted caiman in areas where they had been
extirpated (Larriera and Imhof 2006; Larriera et al. 2008, pp. 143-172)
have also been observed. What may be most important to the survival of
the broad-snouted caiman, however, is that nesting areas are now
protected by local inhabitants who have an economic interest in
maintaining the wild populations. Due to public awareness programs and
monetary incentives for locals who collect eggs, there has been no
report of illegal harvest since 1998.
Ranching program reports indicate increased population numbers in
Argentina of this species based on nest counts and egg harvest reports
(Jenkins et al. 2006, pp. 26-27). For example, in the 1991 season in
Santa Fe, 10 nests were harvested, 14 nests were located, and 237
hatchlings were produced. In 2003, 228 nests were located, 304 were
identified, and 5,638 hatchlings were produced (p. 27). The current
population survey methods used in Argentina are not entirely reliable
as a tool for establishing direct relationships with populations in the
wild, but they provide a general idea of the increase in caiman
numbers. Micucci points out that the information provided directly by
nest counts and night surveys is more reliable and direct than egg
harvest counts, at least in environments with large fluctuations in
water mass, which is the case of this species, particularly in
Argentina (2010 pers. comm.). Although there is not accurate population
trend data for this species in the wild (Micucci 2010 pers. comm.), we
consider the egg harvest data to be the best available information and
data collected indicate an upward trend in population numbers for this
species.
A secondary concern in the management of this species in Argentina
is there may be inadequate oversight by provincial governments when
extracting eggs from nests and tracking the origin of these eggs (this
also applies to Factor D, the Inadequacy of Regulatory Mechanisms).
Additionally, the level of independent or outside evaluation of the
ranching programs in Argentina is unclear and there may be a lack of
transparency in monitoring. This may be indicative of a need for
stronger involvement by the provincial and federal governments, or the
need for a stronger legal framework at the provincial level to regulate
or monitor these activities. However, despite these concerns, the
reports on the broad-snouted caiman conservation program in Argentina
do indicate that the population is increasing, and the program is being
actively monitored by the government of Argentina.
The species is not overutilized in Argentina, and overutilization
is unlikely to be a factor affecting the population in the future.
Annual reporting under CITES may alert us to any overutilization in
Argentina. However, based on a review of the best available
information, and in the absence of conflicting information, we find no
evidence that overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific,
or educational purposes is a threat to the broad-snouted caiman
throughout its range in Argentina.
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Northern DPS)
One of the primary threats to the species before it was listed in
CITES Appendix I in 1975 was uncontrolled international trade.
International trade primarily for commercial purposes is restricted
from Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay due to the species'
[[Page 38180]]
Appendix I status under CITES. The UNEP-WCMC trade database did not
indicate any unusual trends in the species' trade with respect to these
countries.
Beginning in the 1940s, the broad-snouted caiman was hunted
commercially for international trade in its leather, which is commonly
reported to be of higher quality than that of other caiman species
(Brazaitis 1987 in Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 1-2). However, since the
time the species has been protected by CITES and the ESA, this is no
longer a factor affecting the species in these countries (see WWW.UNEP-
WCMC CITES trade database at http://www.unep-wcmc.org/citestrade).
In Bolivia, caiman is used for its fat, meat, and leather products
(Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 112). It is also killed due to fear by
humans. In the Chaco province of Bolivia, there were reports of the
species attacking and killing pigs and other small cattle (Pacheco in
Embert 2007, p. 55), but these incidences do not seem to occur
frequently. No other recent data are available in Bolivia for this
species.
In Brazil and Uruguay, small amounts of illegal harvest are
reported to still occur in some areas (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19)
(Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 102). In northeastern Brazil, illegal hunting
still supplies local markets for meat in small cities along the
S[atilde]o Francisco River basin. The meat is sold as salted carcasses
like codfish, and is actually called ``S[atilde]o Francisco codfish''
(Verdade 2001a). Hunting for meat also occurs in some parts of Uruguay
(Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 104). However, species experts concluded that
illegal hunting is no longer a major factor affecting the species due
to improved protection, costs and consequences of illegal hunting, and
the availability of legal skins (Verdade 1998, pp. 18-19).
Historically, caiman was commonly hunted for its meat. Many fishermen
also killed caiman because caiman fed on the fish in their fishing
nets, and caiman would destroy their nets (Filogonio et al. 2010, p.
964). Thus, current levels of hunting pressure may have only localized
impacts.
In Paraguay, in the past, the broad-snouted caiman may have been
subject to greater hunting pressure than Caiman yacare because the
quality of its skin is considered better quality (Scott et al. 1990,
pp. 45-46). Hunting was almost uncontrolled through 1990, and some
caiman populations almost disappeared. However, small residual
populations were increasing in size when last surveyed in places where
they and their habitat were protected (Scott et al. 1990, pp. 45-46).
In Uruguay, broad-snouted caiman was never legally hunted for
commercial purposes (Verdade 1998, pp. 18-19), although illegal hunting
has been observed (Borteiro et al. 2006, p. 97). Uruguay's standard of
living, literacy rate, and large urban middle class are reported to be
quite high compared with other countries within this species' range
(http://www.state.gov, accessed March 14, 2011), which may account for
the lack of commercial hunting in this country. There is no indication
that this species is overutilized in Uruguay.
Summary of Factor B for the Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay
(Northern DPS)
Domestic use of the broad-snouted caiman occurs within the Northern
DPS still occurs, but levels remain low. Any incidence of hunting or
harvest that may occur does not significantly affect the species. Based
on a review of the best available information, and in the absence of
conflicting new information, we find that overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes is no
longer a threat to the broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Factor C. Disease or Predation
Argentina
There is little information on diseases that affect wild broad-
snouted caiman (Jacobson 2007; Huchzermeyer 2003). In 1999, the Field
Veterinary Program of the Wildlife Conservation Society and
Fundaci[oacute]n Vida Silvestre Argentina studied the health of caiman
populations in the wild and in captivity at the El Cachap[eacute]
ranching operation in Chaco Province, Argentina. There was a very low
incidence of pathogens and no evidence of infectious disease found.
Health conditions of ranched and wild animals continue to be monitored
in Argentina (Uhart and Moreno 2000; Uhart et al. 2000).
There is naturally a high level of predation on eggs and
hatchlings. In the wild, an average of 60 to 70 percent of the eggs do
not hatch, usually due to nest flooding or predation (Larriera 2003;
Hutton 1984). One study found that the rate of depredation in a low
rainfall season was significantly higher than normal seasons resulting
in over half of the nests being depredated in some areas (Larriera and
Pi[ntilde]a 2000). During dry seasons, high predation may occur due to
easier access to nests, and the increased distance between the nest and
the water. This may also be in part due to less maternal attention when
the mother is in the water. At such times, up to 50 percent of entire
clutches in forest nests and 80 percent of clutches along levees and
dykes can be consumed by predators (Larriera and Imhof 2006). Predators
of eggs and hatchlings include herons (Ardea cocoi), storks (Ciconia
ciconia), crested caracaras (Caracara plancus), iguanas (Tupinambis
merianae), and carnivorous mammals such as the South American gray fox
(Pseudalopex griseus) (Larriera and Imhof 2006). Other research found
that no more than 10 percent of the hatchlings typically survive to
adulthood (Larriera and Imhof 2006). This level of mortality from
predation is considered normal in caiman populations.
In Argentina, methods are taken to minimize the effects of
predation. To decrease the death rate due to predation, ranched young
are returned to the wild only after they are past the critical first
year during which the risk of predation is greatest (Larriera and Imhof
2006). Even when nests are depredated, females can rebuild these nests
(Larriera and Pi[ntilde]a 2000). Clutch sizes can be as high as 129
eggs in a good year (Larriera 2002, p. 202). Although disease and
predation are sources of mortality, it is not a limiting factor for
population growth, caiman populations are continuing to increase in
Argentina.
Summary of Factor C for the Argentine DPS
Disease and predation normally occur in populations, and the best
available scientific and commercial information does not indicate that
either of these factors negatively affects the broad-snouted caiman in
Argentina such that they rise to the level of threats to the species.
Neither disease nor predation is a significant factor affecting this
species. Therefore, we do not find that disease or predation threatens
this distinct population segment of the broad-snouted caiman, now or in
the future.
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Northern DPS)
In the range countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay,
there is no indication that disease and predation are affecting the
broad-snouted caiman such that this factor threatens the species.
Therefore, we do not find that disease or predation threatens this
population segment of the broad-snouted caiman.
Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms
Argentine DPS
The broad-snouted caiman was listed in Appendix I of CITES on July
1, 1975.
[[Page 38181]]
This listing (also refer to the Factor B discussion) requires strict
regulation of international movement of this species, which may only be
authorized in ``exceptional circumstances,'' and international trade
for primarily commercial purposes is prohibited. In 1990, ``Projecto
Yacar[eacute]'' was implemented in Argentina based on a concept of
conservation through sustainable use of broad-snouted caiman. The
objective of the program was to improve the status of the population by
creating incentives for landowners and by increasing public awareness
in the local communities to encourage the increase of caiman
populations. Another objective was to conserve natural wetlands on
which caimans depend (Larriera et al. 2008a, pp. 143-145). This program
also reintroduces captive-raised individuals to the wild. Since the
government of Argentina began the management and monitoring of the
Argentine population of broad-snouted caiman, population monitoring for
Argentina has indicated an upward trend. Through this program, a
significant increase in egg collection and harvest has occurred in the
wild; over 30,000 hatchlings from eggs collected have been released
into the wild since the program began.
On September 18, 1997, at the 10th meeting of the Conference of the
Parties (``CoP10''), the Argentine population of broad-snouted caiman
was transferred to Appendix II based on a proposal from Argentina. The
proposal described the increased population status of the species in
Argentina and a ranching program that had contributed to its population
increase (CoP10 Doc. 10.86, CoP10 Prop. 10.1, Government of Argentina
1997). Appendix II allows for regulated commercial trade as long as the
exporting country finds that the specimens were legally acquired and
that the activity is not detrimental to the survival of the species. A
Resolution on a universal tagging system for the identification of
crocodile skins was adopted by the Parties at CoP9, held in 1994.
Exported skins must be tagged according to the CITES Resolution on a
universal tagging system (Resolution Conf. 11.12 (Rev. CoP15)).
At CoP10 (1997, Harare, Zimbabwe), the CITES Secretariat reported
that, to its knowledge, all range countries were effectively
implementing the Universal Tagging System Resolution. Caiman yacare
skins and products originating in Argentina have been imported into the
United States with the appropriate CITES tags. This species was
downlisted under the ESA in 2000 to threatened status (65 FR 25867, May
4, 2000). Adherence to the CITES tagging requirements has decreased the
potential for substitution of illegal skins, which has reduced trade
enforcement problems involving the similarity of appearance of skins
and products among different species of crocodilians.
According to CITES Resolution Conf. 11.16 (Rev. CoP15), for trade
in ranched specimens of species transferred from Appendix I to Appendix
II to occur, a ranching program must:
(1) Demonstrate that the program is beneficial to the conservation
of the local population;
(2) Identify and document all products to ensure that they can be
readily distinguished from products of Appendix-I populations;
(3) Maintain appropriate inventories and harvest-level controls and
mechanisms in the program to monitor wild populations; and
(4) Establish sufficient safeguards in the program to ensure that
adequate numbers of animals are returned to the wild if necessary and
where appropriate.
At the national level, Argentine Law 22.421 prohibits all use of
fauna that is not specifically authorized (Micucci and Waller 1995). In
2000, when the experimental operations began commercial production of
broad-snouted caiman, Resolution 283/00 was enacted by the Government
of Argentina under Law 22.421. This law approves the inter-province
transit and export of caiman products from ranching operations that
comply with CITES Resolution 11.16, but trade in specimens from any
other sources (i.e., not from registered ranching operations) is
illegal. Resolution 283/00 also establishes minimum requirements for
ranching operations. One of the requirements is that there must be a
baseline population study covering at least 40 percent of the province
in which the operation is located. The study must be conducted for at
least 2 years (Larriera and Imhof 2006). The study results must be
approved by the province and then submitted to the national authorities
(Direcci[oacute]n de Fauna y Flora Silvestres [Directorate of Wild
Fauna and Flora]) for final approval. The Registro Nacional de
Criaderos (National Registry of Breeding Centers, Resolution 26/92)
lists registered ranching operations. In provinces with nationally
approved ranching programs, the provincial government must conduct an
annual evaluation of the population status of the species in their
province and submit it to the Direcci[oacute]n de Fauna y Flora
Silvestres. According to Larriera (pers. comm. 2006), all the surveys
are conducted under the supervision of members of the CSG. Ranching
operations and harvests of wildlife that are not transported across
provincial boundaries or exported are controlled through regulation at
the provincial level (Larriera and Imhof 2006).
National Legislation To Implement CITES
Information available to the Service indicates that Argentina has
protected-species and protected-areas legislation under the
jurisdiction of specific ministries or departments that control
activities that impact the broad-snouted caiman and its habitat. The
federal legal framework within the Government of Argentina is
particularly robust. The CITES National Legislation Project (http://www.cites.org, SC59 Document 11, Annex p. 1) deemed that the Government
of Argentina has national legislation that is considered Category 1,
which means they meet all the requirements to implement CITES. With
respect to CITES, based on the trade data (see Factor B discussion) and
other data and information available to the Service, Argentina appears
to be adequately enforcing international trade through its legal
framework.
Summary of Factor D for Argentine DPS
Monitoring indicates that management efforts within Argentina are
working. The broad-snouted caiman population in Argentina, based on
reports provided to the Service and the CITES Secretariat, that are
cited above, appears to be increasing. Some habitat loss and
degradation remain in Argentina; however, these threats have been
reduced based on intensive management efforts of this species. While we
do not have complete population survey information in Argentina, all
indications suggest that the wild population is well managed and is
increasing. Wildlife such as the caiman can be advantageously used in
commerce if management is sufficient to maintain suitable habitats and
if harvest is at a level that allows maintenance of healthy and
sustainable populations. Broad-snouted caiman, under such conditions,
can provide revenue to pay for its own management and stimulate local
economies. Therefore, we find that, although the strong management of
the species through local programs promoting egg harvest and hatchling
release has reduced threats to this species and its habitat, threats
(see Factor A discussion) do still exist. With respect to international
trade of broad-snouted caiman parts and products, we find that CITES is
an adequate regulatory mechanism throughout its range. We will continue
to monitor the
[[Page 38182]]
status of the species in Argentina; however, based on the best
available information, we find that this factor is not a threat to the
species in Argentina.
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Northern DPS)
Bolivia's current environmental legislative framework represents a
significant improvement since the 1992 World Summit on Sustainable
Development in Rio de Janeiro, which began a foundation for the
sustainable and equitable use of the country's environmental resources
and control destructive practices. This framework has had a positive
effect on Bolivia's economic development, especially in the forestry
sector, where it provided clearly defined roles for institutional
oversight and control. To its credit, Bolivia has become the world
leader in the area of certified production forests (Byers et al. 2008,
p. 31). However, management issues in Bolivia still remain. The
ratification of autonomy statutes by the Departments of Santa Cruz,
Pando, Beni, and Tarija, and their conflict with the National
government is currently one of the more contentious issues (Byers et
al. p. 33). The most important implications of this movement toward
enhanced departmental authority and responsibility relate to land-use
planning and authority over land tenure matters. This issue is still in
flux and this transfer towards decentralized governance could have
negative repercussions on the broad-snouted caiman.
With respect to caiman management in Bolivia, a management plan for
Caiman latirostris population recovery and conservation in Tarija
department was proposed for 2006-2009. It is unclear whether the plan
was implemented and no updated data have been provided with respect to
the species' status in Bolivia (Aparicio and R[iacute]os 2008). The
best available information does not indicate that the regulatory
mechanisms in place are adequate to sufficiently protect this species.
Populations of broad-snouted caiman are still considered to be depleted
in Bolivia (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 19; Aparicio and R[iacute]os 2008,
p. 104). Habitat loss, destruction, and modification (refer to Factor A
discussion) are still occurring and are not expected to decrease in the
future (Anderson and Gibson 2006, p. 99), thus suggesting that existing
regulatory mechanisms are insufficient to ameliorate or remove the
threat from habitat destruction.
Brazil is faced with competing priorities of encouraging
development for economic growth and resource protection. In the past,
the Brazilian government, through various regulations, policies,
incentives, and subsidies, had actively encouraged development of
previously undeveloped lands in southeastern Brazil, which helped
facilitate the large-scale habitat conversions that had occurred
throughout the Atlantic Forest (Butler 2007, p. 3; Conservation
International 2007c, p. 1; Pivello 2007, p. 2; Ratter et al. 1997, pp.
227-228; Saatchi et al. 2001, p. 874; Brannstrom 2000, p. 326). These
development projects include logging, housing and tourism developments,
and expansion of plantations (Butler 2007, p. 3; Ratter et al. 1997,
pp. 227-228; Barnett et al. 2000, pp. 377-378; Saatchi et al. 2001, p.
874; Collar et al. 1992, p. 776). These projects impact potentially
important sites for this species and would affect habitat within and
adjacent to established protection areas in Brazil (Collar et al. 1992,
p. 776; Barnett et al. 2000, pp. 377-378). The Brazilian government has
encouraged development of dams for hydroelectric power, irrigation, and
expansion of agricultural practices, primarily for soybean production
(Braz et al. 2003, p. 70; Hughes et al. 2006, pp. 51-56; Verdade et al.
2010, pp. 18-19). Brazil's competing priorities make it difficult to
enforce regulations that protect broad-snouted caiman habitat.
In 2003, Brazil established a nationwide research and development
program, called Programme for Biology, Conservation and Management of
Brazilian Crocodilians (Coutinho and Luz 2008 in Velasco et al. 2008,
p. 80). The broad-snouted caiman was listed as an endangered species in
Brazil until 2003, at which time the species was withdrawn from the
Brazilian List of Endangered Fauna (The Brazilian Institute of
Environment and Renewable Natural Resources [IBAMA] 2003). Despite
these initiatives, we have no information to indicate that regulatory
mechanisms exist to effectively limit or restrict habitat destruction
for this species. We do not have information indicating that impacts to
this species (e.g., development of dams for hydroelectric power, and
expansion of agricultural practices, primarily for soybean production)
have been or will be adequately addressed through existing regulatory
mechanisms at the sites where this species is found or in its habitat.
Based on data and information available to the Service, we believe that
the existing regulatory mechanisms in Brazil are inadequate to
ameliorate the current threats to this species in Brazil.
In Paraguay, the environmental situation has improved; Paraguay has
completed many of its governmental reform objectives (USAID 2004, p.
4). However, there are still concerns; land is still being converted to
soybean plantations and land ownership is still a concern in Paraguay
(USAID 2004, pp. 3, 8). Paraguay's objectives are to achieve more
effective regulation and utilization practices. Environmental laws,
such as the ``Zero Deforestation Law'' and ``Valuation and Retribution
of Environmental Services Law'' have had the most significant impact
during the past 5 years. These measures have declared wild areas be
protected from the private sector.
While we acknowledge that Paraguay is making significant progress
in the conservation of its resources, existing regulatory mechanisms
are still inadequate. For example, the area in the northernmost part of
Paraguay known as the Alto Paraguay was once a refuge for wildlife such
as the caiman. This was primarily due to its isolation and difficulty
in accessing the habitat. However, when the Paraguayan government
promoted a waterway in the Paraguay-Paran[aacute] Basin known as the
Hidrov[iacute]a development project, the Alto Paraguay forest became an
area of land speculation. It remains unclear what is occurring in this
area now and how this activity may affect the broad-snouted caiman.
There is no evidence that effective protective measures have been
undertaken to conserve the broad-snouted caiman. The existing
regulatory mechanisms currently in place for broad-snouted caiman in
Paraguay do not appear to adequately mitigate the factors affecting the
species. In the absence of new information, we find that regulatory
mechanisms in Paraguay are inadequate to protect broad-snouted caiman.
Uruguay's richest biodiversity is found in its wetlands. Its
economy is highly dependent on exports, and the agricultural sector
contributes 11 percent of Uruguay's total gross domestic product (GDP).
One of Uruguay's environmental problems is that rice paddies are
replacing marshlands and is causing degradation of these ecosystems.
While some species are capable of adapting to these human-made
ecosystems, environmental degradation is associated with the conversion
of natural habitat to rice paddies.
The government has taken steps to address the issue of wetland
protection and biodiversity. Uruguay has
[[Page 38183]]
developed methods aimed at improving issues associated with rice
production such as harmful residue generated during processing of rice
and the government is working at methods of reducing the impact caused
by residue accumulation. In the past, the rice hulls were burned, which
emitted toxic chemicals into the atmosphere and contributed to air
pollution. Now, Uruguay is working towards composting the rice hulls,
which has minimal environmental impact. Additionally, Uruguay became a
member of the Ramsar Convention in 1984, and a member of the Convention
on Biological Diversity in 1992, in order to increase protection for
wetlands. Uruguay enacted law number 16.170 which directly addresses
the conservation of wetlands, and specifically mandates that the areas
assigned for wetlands conservation must be respected by rice farmers.
Although Uruguay has made progress in improving its environmental
laws and recognizes the importance of protecting its biodiversity,
enforcement of its laws regulating protection of this species may still
be insufficient in some areas (Brazaitis et al. 1996). This has
primarily been due to the limited resources available to local
enforcement agencies as well as the remoteness and inaccessibility of
much of the caiman habitat. We have no information to indicate that the
existing regulatory mechanisms effectively limit or restrict habitat
destruction for this species. Although Uruguay is making progress in
its protection of natural resources, it is unclear how this species is
being monitored and managed in Uruguay. We do not have sufficient
evidence that impacts to this species (e.g., conversion of wetlands to
rice paddies and subsequent environmental degradation that occurs) have
been or will be adequately addressed through existing regulatory
mechanisms at the sites where this species is found or in its habitat.
Based on the best available information, we find that the existing
regulatory mechanisms continue to be inadequate to ameliorate the
current threats to this species in Uruguay.
National Legislation To Implement CITES in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay,
and Uruguay
The CITES National Legislation Project (http://www.cites.org, SC59
Document 11, Annex p. 1) deemed that the Governments of Brazil and
Uruguay have national legislation that is considered Category 1, which
means they meet all the requirements to implement CITES. Bolivia was
described as being in Category 2, both with a CITES legislation plan
and draft legislation, but not enacted, and Paraguay was described as
Category 2 with no plan and only draft legislation. Overutilization
(unsustainable trade in skins, parts, and products) was the primary
reason that this species was listed in CITES Appendix I and also listed
as endangered under the ESA. However, now, overutilization is no longer
a concern for this species. With respect to CITES, based on the trade
data (see Factor B discussion); we find that the governments of
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay are adequately enforcing
international trade through their respective legal frameworks.
Summary of Factor D for Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay
(Northern DPS)
With respect to international trade of broad-snouted caiman parts
and products, we find that CITES is an adequate regulatory mechanism in
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. However, the best available
scientific and commercial information indicates that broad-snouted
caiman continues to be threatened by the inadequacy of the existing
regulatory mechanisms in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay to
ameliorate the effects of habitat loss and degradation. Management
efforts vary within the range of broad-snouted caiman. Each country has
both unique and overlapping factors that affect the species. In some
cases, there was an abundance of information available regarding
potential threats to the species, and in other cases, there was little
to no information available, particularly regarding the adequacy of
regulatory mechanisms with respect to this species.
In Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, the best available
information indicates that the primary factor affecting the species is
habitat loss (see Factor A discussion). Related to this factor is the
inability of the governments, at a national, provincial, or regional
level, to adequately enforce mechanisms to address threats. In these
countries, there is little monitoring data on broad-snouted caiman.
Based on a review of the information available, we were unable to find
that regulatory mechanisms are adequate in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay,
and Uruguay to protect broad-snouted caiman from threats associated
with habitat loss.
Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Its Continued
Existence
Following is a range wide threats analysis in which we evaluate
whether other natural or manmade factors affect the continued existence
of the broad-snouted caiman throughout its range because the
information available is not specific to each DPS. This evaluation is
not specific to each country unless specified as such.
Pesticides and Endocrine Disruptors
Approximately 10 to 15 percent of pesticides applied in
agricultural activities actually reach target organisms, and the
remainder is dispersed into the atmosphere, soil, and water, which can
affect broad-snouted caiman (Poletta et al. 2009, p. 96). In Argentina,
soy, which requires the application of pesticides, occupies
approximately 16 million hectares, and land dedicated to soy
plantations continues to expand (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 165). Studies
regarding the genotoxicity of the herbicide Roundup[supreg]
(glyphosate) have been conducted in Argentina on broad-snouted caiman.
Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide used widely in weed control.
In this study, specimens of broad-snouted caiman were exposed to
various concentrations and compounds of glyphosate commonly used in
agriculture, particularly on soy plantations. Not only did the study
demonstrate deformities of caiman due to exposure to glyphosate, but it
also resulted in mortalities (Poletta et al. 2011, p. 852; Poletta et
al. 2009, p. 98). One form of glyphosate, Cycloposphamide, in
particular, caused malformations in the exposed caiman, causing 90
percent embryo mortality (Poletta et al. 2009, p. 97). Another study
found that exposure to pesticides decreases hatchlings weight of Caiman
latirostris (Beldomenico et al. 2007, p. 246), which negatively affects
species' fitness. This study evaluated responses based on exposure to
atrazine and endosulfan, which are commonly used in agriculture.
Studies have found that these pesticides, particularly when more than
one is applied, have an effect on caiman reproduction (Stoker et al
2011, p. 311; Poletta et al. 2011, p. 852; Beldomenico et al. 2007, p.
249). Studies suggest that impaired embryonic growth is likely
occurring (Poletta et al. 2011, p. 858; Beldomenico et al. 2007, p.
250).
Potential effects from contamination by pesticides are likely to
occur and affect this species in the wild. Commonly used pesticides
include aldrin, chlordane, endrin, lindane, methoxyclor, toxaphene,
DDT, parathion, endosulfan, Malathion, and carbaryl. Farmers are not
well trained in proper application methods, often over-applying
agrochemicals, applying them under inappropriate physical or
environmental conditions, and not
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following appropriate handling, washing, and storage protocols (Byers
et al. 2008, p. 26). Despite regulations governing the use of these and
other pesticides, more oversight is needed to monitor their use and
effects on this species. Improper pesticide use is likely to occur
throughout the species' range.
In Bolivia, contamination of aquatic systems from agricultural
chemicals occurs in some areas, particularly in Santa Cruz and
Cochabamba (Byers et al. 2008, p. 26). In the lowlands of Santa Cruz
Department, for example, where broad-snouted caiman may exist, agro-
industrial development is leading to increased use of agrochemicals.
Soy, sunflower, cotton, and sugarcane are the main crops, and to a
lesser extent coffee, cacao, and rice are grown. Mechanized
agricultural production on large areas containing soil that has been
depleted of nutrients has led to the increased use of agrochemicals
such as fertilizers and pesticides that are often applied by aerial
spraying. Although 17 pesticides have been banned in Bolivia, as of
2008, they were still sold in local markets and routinely used (Byers
et al. 2008, p. 26).
We recognize that pesticides will result in mortalities and
decreased fitness in some individuals; however, the best available
information does not indicate that pesticides are a significant factor
affecting this species. Studies have been conducted in Argentina, where
pesticides are used, and reproduction and survival rates of broad-
snouted caiman in Argentina currently appear to be robust. Populations
are increasing in Argentina, and the species has expanded its range in
some areas (Verdade et al. 2010, pp. 18-22; Borteiro et al. 2008, pp.
244-249). This is an indication of the species' intrinsic resilience
and adaptability. Although environmental contaminants such as
pesticides and herbicides likely affect individuals, there is no
evidence that these contaminants currently pose a threat to the
species.
Studies in other crocodile species have been conducted to examine
their effects as endocrine disrupters (Rainwater et al. 2008, pp. 101-
109). Vitellogenin induction is a useful biomarker to examine exposure
and response to endocrine disruptors, specifically environmental
estrogens. To the best of our knowledge, endocrine disrupters are not a
threat to broad-snouted caiman.
We recognize that environmental contaminants may affect
individuals, especially given the potential for long-term
bioaccumulation of contaminants during the species' life. However, we
do not have information or data on the extent of the impact, if any,
that environmental contaminants currently have on the species. An
inadvertent aspect of the research referenced above indicated that the
removal of eggs from the wild and hatching in a captive environment can
actually have a beneficial effect. Exposure to environmental
contaminants such as pesticides is reduced because eggs are removed
from the wild shortly after females lay their eggs. Regardless of this
aspect, based on the best available scientific and commercial
information available, we currently do not find that exposure to
pesticides or other environmental contaminants is a threat to the
species.
Human Conflict
Although it is commonly known that human conflict with caiman
occurs, this is not a significant factor affecting the species. The
most recent survey of broad-snouted caiman by the Crocodile Specialist
Group indicates that one of the principal threats to this species is
illegal hunting in localized areas (in some states of Brazil, where
caiman population is low) (Verdade et al. 2010, p. 1). In Bolivia, a
survey indicated that 92 percent of individuals said that they hunted
broad-snouted caiman to avoid the danger of an attack. This was more
common when caiman were found in cattle watering areas such as ponds
and agricultural impoundments near homes. However, the actual impacts
are unknown; the survey was anecdotal. Most broad-snouted caiman
populations in Argentina occur on privately owned wetlands. In Chaco,
Argentina, local people have been known to kill caiman, not only for
food, but out of fear that these animals will attack them or their
livestock and poultry (Aparicio and Rios 2008, p. 112; Prado 2002).
Based on interviews with ranchers, landowners and police, it is
estimated that approximately 30 to 40 wild caiman per year are killed
for food, and about 50 per year are killed out of fear (Larriera 2006,
pers. comm.). These killings often occur during the dry season, when
caiman move to ponds that are closer to human-populated areas. To
counter these fears, biologists have been working with local
communities through the caiman ranching project at the El
Cachap[eacute] Wildlife Refuge in Argentina. One aspect of this program
was that they developed an educational campaign in local schools. The
students participate in the ranching project on the refuge. The project
produced two educational Web sites that describe the conservation and
ecology of caiman species in Argentina.
In Argentina, because there is incentive for local communities and
villagers in the range of the species to conserve broad-snouted caiman;
conflict and killing of caiman for food, although it occurs, do not
occur to the extent that it rises to the level of a threat. Throughout
the rest of the species' range, human conflict with broad-snouted
caiman occurs sporadically and may result in the death of some
individual caimans. However, the best available scientific and
commercial information does not indicate that human conflict occurs to
the extent that it is a significant factor affecting the species.
Therefore, relative to the population size, human conflict does not
appear to be a threat to the species.
The broad-snouted caiman, like other wildlife, is a victim of
collisions with motor vehicles while crossing roadways. Approximately
200 animals are killed annually due to collisions (Larriera, pers.
comm. 2006). Broad-snouted caiman often successfully cross roads in
areas containing sparse human developments. Development of high volume
transportation corridors in broad-snouted caiman habitat may inhibit
their movements between habitat patches, potentially reducing
connectivity among water bodies generally inhabited by broad-snouted
caiman. However, these mortality events do not occur to such an extent
that they are a significant factor affecting the species.
Fire Ants
The red fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, is an extremely aggressive
species. It is originally from central South America and is distributed
throughout a large variety of habitats (Folgarait et al. 2005 in
Parach[uacute]-Marc[oacute] et al. 2008, pp. 1-2). It completely
occupies the area of distribution of broad-snouted caiman. This is an
opportunistic, aggressive species and is able to reach high population
densities. The fire ant prefers total or partial exposure to the sun,
and apparently is attracted by sources of protein, sugar, and lipids as
well as high levels of humidity. Because broad-snouted caiman generally
nest in fairly open habitats, and its nests are raised, they provide an
ideal source of protection for S. invicta colonies from rains during
the summer. Allen et al. (1997, pp. 318-320) showed that red fire ants
affect the success of hatching, causing the death of unborn embryos in
the nest, and possibly prevent the female from opening the nest when
her hatchlings call. In Argentina, these ants use broad-snouted caiman
nests to set up their new colonies (Larriera 2006, pers. comm.), and
have been
[[Page 38185]]
documented to decrease hatching success by 20 percent (Parach[uacute]-
Marc[oacute] et al., 2005, pp. 1-2). The severity and magnitude of
long-term and short-term effects of fire ants on broad-snouted caiman
populations is currently unknown. Although fire ants have the potential
of being a localized threat, the best available information does not
indicate that this factor affects the species such that it is a threat
to the species throughout all or a significant part of its range.
Drought and Flooding
This species has survived large-scale droughts and floods in the
past (Larriera 2003), but high rainfall can lead to reduced hatching
success from flooding (Larriera and Pi[ntilde]a 2000). Recent caiman
counts suggest that populations declined somewhat during 2002-2003 and
2007-2008 (Micucci et al. 2007, Larriera et al. 2008). This was
attributed to cyclic drought conditions during the early 2000s (Micucci
et al. 2007, Larriera et al. 2008). The production of broad-snouted
caiman eggs during the 2009 season was drastically reduced in
Corrientes, Santa Fe, and Formosa Provinces also due to a severe
drought. In 2010, wetlands recovered due to heavy rains, and egg
harvest in 2010 was approximately 30 percent higher than the historical
average (Larriera and Siroski 2010, pp. 1-2). However, drought and
flooding does not occur to such an extent that they are a significant
factor affecting the species.
Climate Change
The term ``climate'' refers to an area's long-term average weather
patterns, or more specifically, the mean and variation of surface
variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind, whereas
``climate change'' refers to any change in climate over time, whether
due to natural variability or human activity (Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, pp. 6, 871). Although changes in climate
occur continuously over geological time, changes are now occurring at
an accelerated rate. For example, at continental, regional and ocean
basin scales, recent observed changes in long-term trends include: A
substantial increase in precipitation in eastern parts of North America
and South America, northern Europe, and northern and central Asia;
declines in precipitation in the Mediterranean, southern Africa, and
parts of southern Asia; and an increase in intense tropical cyclone
activity in the North Atlantic since about 1970 (IPCC 2007, p. 30).
Examples of observed changes in the physical environment include an
increase in global average sea level and declines in mountain glaciers
and average snow cover in both the northern and southern hemispheres
(IPCC 2007, p. 30).
The IPCC used Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models and
various greenhouse gas emissions scenarios to make projections of
climate change globally and for broad regions through the 21st century
(Meehl et al. 2007, p. 753; Randall et al. 2007, pp. 596-599).
Highlights of these projections include: (1) It is virtually certain
there will be warmer and more frequent hot days and nights over most of
the earth's land areas; (2) it is very likely there will be increased
frequency of warm spells and heat waves over most land areas, and the
frequency of heavy precipitation events will increase over most areas;
and (3) it is likely that increases will occur in the incidence of
extreme high sea level (excludes tsunamis), intense tropical cyclone
activity, and the area affected by droughts in various regions of the
world (Solomon et al. 2007, p. 8). More recent analyses using a
different global model and comparing other emissions scenarios resulted
in similar projections of global temperature change (Prinn et al. 2011,
pp. 527, 529).
As is the case with all models, there is some uncertainty
associated with projections due to assumptions used, data available,
and features of the models. Despite this uncertainty, however, under
all models and emissions scenarios the overall surface air temperature
trajectory is one of increased warming in comparison to current
conditions (Meehl et al. 2007, p. 762; Prinn et al. 2011, p. 527).
Climate models and associated assumptions, data, and analytical
techniques continue to be refined, and thus projections are refined as
more information becomes available (Rahmstorf 2010). For instance,
observed actual emissions of greenhouses gases, which are a key
influence on climate change, are tracking at the mid- to higher levels
of the various scenarios used for making projections, and some expected
changes in conditions (e.g., melting of Arctic sea ice) are occurring
more rapidly than initially projected (Manning et al. 2010, p. 377;
Polyak et al. 2010, p. 1,797; LeQuere et al. 2009, p. 2; Comiso et al.
2008, p. 1; Pielke et al. 2008, entire; Raupach et al. 2007, p. 10289).
In short, the best scientific and commercial data available indicate
that increases in average global surface air temperature and several
other changes are occurring and likely will continue for many decades
and in some cases for centuries (Church 2010, p. 411; Solomon et al.
2007, pp. 822-829).
Changes in climate can have a variety of direct and indirect
impacts on species, and can exacerbate the effects of other threats.
For instance, climate-associated environmental changes to the
landscape, such as decreased stream flows, increased water
temperatures, reduced snowpacks, and increased fire frequency, or other
changes occurring individually or in combination, may affect species
and their habitats. The vulnerability of a species to climate change
impacts is a function of the species' sensitivity to those changes, its
exposure to those changes, and its adaptive capacity (IPCC 2007, p.
883). As described above, in evaluating the status of a species the
Service uses the best scientific and commercial data available, and
this includes consideration of direct and indirect effects of climate
change. As is the case with all other stressors we assess, if the
status of a species is expected to be affected that does not
necessarily mean it is an endangered or threatened species as defined
under the ESA. Species that are dependent on specialized habitat types,
limited in distribution, or occurring already at the extreme periphery
of their range will be most susceptible to the impacts of climate
change. However, the broad-snouted caiman has a wide distribution and
is more resilient than these species.
The information currently available on the effects of climate
change and the available climate change models do not make sufficiently
accurate estimates of location and magnitude of effects at a scale
small enough to apply to the range of the broad-snouted caiman. Below
is a discussion of data and research available, with which we can make
inferences on the projected impacts to the broad-snouted caiman due to
climate change, particularly the potential impacts of shifting global
temperatures on sex ratios as well as the species' distribution.
A study conducted to determine climate change's projected impacts
to the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) illustrates possible
impacts to the broad-snouted caiman (Escobedo-Galv[aacute]n 2006, p.
131). This is significant because the sex of crocodiles is determined
during incubation and is temperature-dependent. This study selected
areas in Florida and western Mexico that contain American crocodiles,
and predicted how increased temperatures could affect the geographical
distribution and sex ratios of the species in Florida, the Caribbean,
and Central America. It focused on the geographic distribution and sex
ratios of American crocodiles in the present (2006), 2020, and 2050. It
suggested that
[[Page 38186]]
the geographic distribution and sex ratios of American crocodile
populations in different parts of its range would change in response to
temperature and sea-level parameters. Optimal growth in crocodilians
has been found to occur around 31 [deg]C (88 [deg]F), with appetites
and effective digestion diminishing below 29 [deg]C (84 [deg]F)
(Coulson and Hernandez 1964, pp. 2-33; Coulson and Coulson 1986, pp.
585-588), which correlates with optimal temperatures for incubation.
According to Escobedo-Galv[aacute]n et al. 2008, increased global
temperatures and sea level could in some ways benefit the American
crocodile by significantly increasing its potential habitat and
distribution. Through this, we could infer that similar effects could
occur in the broad-snouted caiman species. The study predicted that the
distribution for the American crocodile would expand 69 percent in
2020, and 207 percent in 2050. This is an 81 percent increase in
potential distribution from 2020 to 2050 (Escobedo-Galv[aacute]n et al.
2008, pp. 9-10). While the American crocodile is adapted to a narrow
climate range (Escobedo-Galv[aacute]n et al. 2008, p. 5), the broad-
snouted caiman's geographic distribution is one of the widest
latitudinal ranges among all crocodilians (Schmidt-Villela et al., 2008
p. 1). Broad-snouted caiman latitudinal range is between 5[deg] S to
32[deg] S (Simoncini et al. 2009, p. 191). As global temperatures
increase, areas that are currently too cool to support broad-snouted
caiman may become warm enough to support them in the future. There is
conflicting information on how climate change could affect this
species; it could benefit the species or have no significant impact.
Based on the data available, we do not currently have sufficient
information to determine how changes in climate will affect this
species at this time.
The broad-snouted caiman's geographic distribution is one of the
largest latitudinal ranges among all crocodilians (Verdade and
Pi[ntilde]a 2006). Due to its variability in use of habitat, an
expansion of the range of the broad-snouted caiman may occur, as it is
more of a habitat generalist than other crocodile species.
Based on scenarios that do not assume explicit climate policies to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, global average temperature is
projected to rise by 2 to 11.5 [deg]F by the end of this century
(relative to the 1980-1999 time period) (USGCRP 2011, p. 9). Optimal
growth in crocodilians has been found to occur around 88 [deg]F (31
[deg]C), with appetites and effective digestion diminishing below 84
[deg]F (29 [deg]C). Although climate change may cause changes in the
broad-snouted caiman distribution, we do not have any data to indicate
that effects on the species due to climate change would have a
detrimental effect, nor is climate change likely to become a threat in
the foreseeable future.
Summary of Factor E
Few, if any, other natural or manmade factors are anticipated to
significantly affect the continued existence of the broad-snouted
caiman in either DPS. We reviewed factors such as fire ants, human
conflict, pesticides and endocrine disruptors, droughts and flooding,
and climate change. With respect to climate change, we lack adequate
local or regional models on how climate change would specifically
affect the habitat in the broad-snouted caiman's range. Given that
reliable, predictive models have not been developed for use at the
local scale in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, there
is little certainty regarding the timing, magnitude, and net effect of
climate change's impacts. Therefore, we find it is not possible at this
time to make reliable predictions of climate change effects on the
Argentine population or the Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay
population due to the current limitations in available data and climate
models. We found no information that the other stressors evaluated
under this factor significantly affect the survival of the species.
Based on the best available information, we find that there are no
other natural or manmade factors which may constitute possible threats
to either population segment.
Finding
We have carefully assessed the best available scientific and
commercial information regarding the past, present, and future threats
faced by the broad-snouted caiman throughout its range, and we have
separately evaluated the population in Argentina (referred to as a
distinct population segment, or DPS) and the Northern DPS, which
consists of Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
Argentine DPS
In Argentina, our status review found that, although some localized
impacts to broad-snouted caiman still occur in Argentina such as
habitat modification, particularly due to agricultural development, the
government of Argentina has reduced threats associated with habitat
loss and overutilization through its ranching program such that the
species is not currently in danger of extinction. Through the five-
factor analysis, we considered the progress made by Argentina towards
addressing previous threats to this species. We took into consideration
the conservation actions that have occurred, are ongoing, and are
planned. Since its listing under the ESA, the species' status has
improved in Argentina based on the following:
National and international laws and treaties have
minimized the impacts of trade.
Effective community-based ranching programs have been
established.
Population numbers appear to be increasing in Argentina
based on nest counts and egg harvest data.
The primary factor that led to the listing of this species under
the ESA was overutilization. In Argentina, we find few threats to the
species in the wild, although we find the DPS is still threatened by
the present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of
its habitat or range (Factor A). However, information regarding the
caiman ranching program in Argentina indicates that the caiman
population is increasing in the wild in Argentina such that it is no
longer in danger of extinction. The information indicates that the
broad-snouted caiman population is now widespread throughout its range
in Argentina. In the region that had the oldest caiman ranching program
(Santa Fe province), population trend information based on night counts
during 1990-2002 indicates five of six populations increased during
that period (Larriera and Imhof 2004). Recent data tracking of the
success of hatching show the percentage of hatchlings born from the
harvested eggs has been above 70 percent in recent years, sometimes
exceeding 80 percent (Larriera et al. 2008, p. 158).
As discussed under Factor B, removing eggs from the wild, rearing
the young, and releasing them at an age where they can defend
themselves more readily can be advantageous, because larger size in
young crocodilians improves survivorship (Elsey et al. 1992). For
crocodiles, supplementing wild populations with captive-reared
juveniles taken from eggs collected in the wild is a valuable tool for
crocodilian management, because mortality of juveniles in the wild
decreases with age and size.
Enforcement of existing national and international laws and
treaties has minimized the potential impact of trade in Argentina, and
available data strongly suggest that wild populations in Argentina are
increasing (Pi[ntilde]a et al. 2009). Exports from Argentina are
carefully managed, and commercial
[[Page 38187]]
exports are limited to those caiman from managed programs. All
indications suggest that Argentina has been successful in increasing
its population of broad-snouted caiman through intensive management
efforts. The population has increased as evidenced by an increase in
population density, the identification of reproducing females
previously released by the program, the expansion of the nesting areas,
the increase in the quantity of harvested nests, and the observation of
caiman in places where they had disappeared (Larriera et al. 2008, p.
172). Age classes reflect healthy reproduction and recruitment into a
wild breeding population.
We find that the impacts previously identified in Argentina when
the species was listed under the ESA no longer are of sufficient
magnitude such that it is endangered. Because the Argentine population
of broad-snouted caiman satisfies both the discreteness and
significance criteria as defined by the DPS Policy, this final rule
reclassifies the distinct population segment of the broad-snouted
caiman (Caiman latirostris) in Argentina from endangered status to
threatened status under the ESA. As identified above, only one of the
five listing factors currently poses a threat to the broad-snouted
caiman, namely, Factor A--the present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range. Although not
currently in danger of extinction due to the destruction, modification,
or curtailment of its habitat, we find that the species is likely to
become so with the continued destruction of habitat in the foreseeable
future. In other parts of this species' range within Argentina where it
is not monitored, threats are still acting on the species. We have seen
substantial progress in Argentina with respect to addressing threats to
this species. In developing this final rule, we carefully assessed the
best scientific and commercial data available regarding the threats
facing this species, as well as the ongoing conservation efforts by
Argentina. Consequently, we are reclassifying the Argentine DPS of the
broad-snouted caiman to threatened status under the ESA.
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Northern DPS)
In contrast, there is a lack of information about the broad-snouted
caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay (Verdade et al. 2010,
p. 20; Aparicio and R[iacute]os 2008; Borteiro et al. 2008). The best
available information indicates that threats remain such that the
species should retain its endangered status under the ESA in these four
countries due to habitat degradation and the inadequacy of regulatory
mechanisms (Factors A and D, respectively). Although we have very
little information about the species in these countries and are unable
to determine population numbers or trends, the best available
information indicates that the species continues to face threats under
Factors A and D in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay such that the
species remains currently in danger of extinction. Therefore, because
this population segment satisfies the discreteness and significance
criteria under the DPS policy, we find that the distinct population
segment of the broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and
Uruguay should remain listed as endangered under the ESA. We will
continue to monitor the status of the species throughout its entire
range. Additionally, the broad-snouted caiman in Bolivia, Brazil,
Paraguay, and Uruguay will remain listed in Appendix I of CITES.
Special Rule
Section 4(d) of the ESA states that the Secretary of the Interior
(Secretary) may, by regulation, extend to threatened species
prohibitions provided for endangered species under section 9.
Exercising this discretion, the Service, acting under authority
delegated by the Secretary, has promulgated implementing regulations
that incorporate the section 9 prohibitions for endangered wildlife (50
CFR 17.31) and exceptions to those prohibitions (50 CFR 17.32) which
apply to most threatened wildlife. Under 50 CFR 17.32, permits may be
issued to allow persons to engage in otherwise prohibited activities
with threatened species for certain purposes.
Under section 4(d) of the ESA, the Service may also develop
specific prohibitions and exceptions tailored to the particular
conservation needs of a threatened species. In such cases, the Service
issues a special rule that may include some of the prohibitions and
exceptions set out in 50 CFR 17.31 and 50 CFR 17.32 respectively, which
may be more or less restrictive than the general provisions at 50 CFR
17.31 and 50 CFR 17.32. For threatened species, a special rule gives
the Secretary discretion to specify the appropriate prohibitions from
section 9 of the ESA, while also providing provisions that are
necessary and advisable to provide for the conservation of the species.
Under this final special rule, the Service amends the regulations
for threatened crocodilians at 50 CFR 17.42(c) to add the Argentine DPS
of the broad-snouted caiman. With this special rule, all the
prohibitions and exceptions at 50 CFR 17.31 and 50 CFR 17.32 apply to
the Argentine DPS of the broad-snouted caiman, except that import into
and export out of the United States and certain activities in
interstate and foreign commerce in the course of a commercial
activities involving broad-snouted caiman skin, parts, and products
from Argentina are allowed without an ESA regulatory permit under 50
CFR 17.32, if the requirements of this special rule and parts 13
(General Permit Requirements), 14 (Importation, Exportation, and
Transportation) and 23 (CITES) of Title 50 of the Code of Federal
Regulations are met.
All provisions of 50 CFR 17.31 and 50 CFR 17.32 apply to live
specimens and viable eggs of the Argentine DPS of the broad-snouted
caiman. Thus, importation of viable caiman eggs and live caimans will
require an ESA permit for threatened species, in addition to the
appropriate CITES permit. This requirement will allow scrutiny of
individual applications for importation of live caimans or eggs so as
to prevent accidental introduction of these exotic species into the
United States, which may have detrimental effects on U.S. native
wildlife or ecosystems.
Effects of This Rule
This final special rule for the Argentine DPS of the broad-snouted
caiman allows for the importation into and exportation from the United
States of broad-snouted caiman skins, other parts, and products from
Argentina without a permit under 50 CFR 17.32, provided that
requirements in the special rule and the Service's regulations at parts
13, 14, and 23 of Title 50 of Code of Federal Regulations are met.
Under this rule, a person may also deliver, receive, carry, transport,
ship, sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce and in
the course of a commercial activity any skins, other parts, or products
from the Argentine DPS of the broad-snouted caiman without a permit
under 50 CFR 17.32, provided that certain conditions are fulfilled.
This rule also allows the import into the United States of skins,
parts, or products originally from Argentina and re-exported by other
countries (i.e., intermediary countries), if certain conditions are met
by those countries prior to exportation to the United States. These
conditions pertain to the implementation of a CITES Resolution on a
universal tagging system for the identification of crocodile skins, as
well as provisions intended to support
[[Page 38188]]
appropriate management for sustainable use of wild populations of
Caiman latirostris.
This special rule adopts the existing requirements of CITES as the
appropriate regulatory provisions for the import and export of skins,
parts, and products from the Argentine DPS of the broad-snouted caiman.
As previously mentioned in our listing determination, we have found
that overutilization through international trade is not a threat to the
Argentine DPS of the broad-snouted caiman, and, in any event,
international trade of the Argentine population of the broad-snouted
caiman is adequately regulated under CITES. Currently, the Argentine
population of the broad-snouted caiman is listed under Appendix II of
CITES. Thus, importation into the United States of any specimen of
broad-snouted caiman originating from the Argentine population must be
accompanied by a CITES export permit or re-export certificate. In
issuing a CITES export permit for skins, parts, or products of broad-
snouted caiman from the Argentine population, the Scientific Authority
of Argentina must determine that such export will not be detrimental to
the survival of the species, and the Management Authority of Argentina
must determine that it was not obtained in contravention of its laws
for the protections of fauna and flora. In issuing a re-export
certificate for skins, parts, or products of broad-snouted caiman
originating from the Argentine population, the Management Authority of
the State of re-export must determine that the specimen was imported
into that State in accordance with CITES provisions.
Argentina must continue to effectively implement the CITES
Resolution on a universal tagging system for the identification of
crocodile skins and must have adequate national legislation for the
implementation of CITES. The special rule also allows trade in broad-
snouted caiman parts and products through intermediary countries if the
countries involved are effectively implementing CITES and the CITES
Universal Tagging System Resolution. 50 CFR 17.42(c)(4) describes
specific bases the Service will use to determine whether CITES is being
effectively implemented by the applicable country of export or re-
export.
Essentially, this special rule prohibits the importation,
exportation, and re-exportation of skins, other parts, or products of
broad-snouted caiman originating from Argentina or imported from a
country of manufacture or re-export unless the following conditions,
among others, are met:
(1) Each Argentine broad-snouted caiman skin or part imported,
exported, or re-exported must be tagged or labeled in accordance with
the CITES Resolution on a universal tagging system for the
identification of crocodile skins. This does not apply to meat, skulls,
scientific specimens, or products, or to the noncommercial import,
export, or reexport of personal effects in accompanying baggage or
household effects.
(2) Any countries re-exporting Argentine broad-snouted caiman skins
or parts must have implemented an administrative system for the
effective matching of imports and re-exports. However, the CITES
Resolution on a universal tagging system for the identification of
crocodile skins presupposes that countries of re-export have
implemented a system for monitoring skins. Countries are not considered
intermediary countries or countries of re-export if the specimens
remain in Customs control while transiting or being transshipped
through the country, and provided those specimens have not entered into
the commerce of that country.
(3) Argentina and any intermediary country(s) must be effectively
implementing CITES. If we receive persuasive information from the CITES
Secretariat or other reliable sources that a specific country is not
effectively implementing CITES, we will prohibit or restrict imports
from such country(s) as appropriate for the conservation of the
species.
In a limited number of situations in which the original tags from
the country of export have been lost in processing the skins, we will
allow whole skins, flanks, and chalecos into the United States if
CITES-approved re-export tags have been attached in the same manner as
the original tags and proper re-export certificates accompany the
shipment. If a shipment contains more than 25 percent replacement tags,
the U.S. Management Authority will consult with the Management
Authority of the re-exporting country before clearing the shipment.
Such shipments may be seized if we determine that the requirements of
CITES have not been met.
In sum, the intent of this special rule is to enhance the
conservation of the broad-snouted caiman in Argentina, which is
effectively managing its broad-snouted caiman populations. By gaining
access to commercial markets in the United States for broad-snouted
caiman products, Argentina will be encouraged to continue its
sustainable-use management programs. These programs require annual
surveys of wild populations to ensure biological sustainability in
participating provinces and reintroduction of ranched offspring to the
wild. The programs also provide an economic incentive for local people
to protect and expand broad-snouted caiman habitat.
This special rule allowing commercial trade into the United States
without threatened species import permits under the ESA does not end
protection for this species, which remains listed in Appendix II of
CITES. To the contrary, the special rule complements the CITES
universal tagging resolution, which has reduced the potential for the
laundering of illegal skins and reduced the trade control problems
associated with the similarity of appearance of skins and products
among different species and populations of crocodilians that have
varying degrees of endangerment. A benefit of this special rule is that
it aligns the ESA's requirements for the importation and exportation of
Argentine broad-snouted caiman parts and products into and from the
United States with CITES requirements. Thus, for the reasons mentioned
above, this special rule provides measures that are necessary and
advisable to provide for the conservation of the species, while also
including appropriate prohibitions from section 9 of the ESA.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the ESA include recognition of conservation status,
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain
practices. Recognition through listing encourages and results in
conservation actions by Federal, State, and private agencies and
groups, and individuals. The protection required of Federal agencies
and the prohibitions against take and harm are discussed, in part,
below.
Section 7(a) of the ESA, as amended, and as implemented by
regulations at 50 CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies to evaluate
their actions that are to be conducted within the United States or upon
the high seas, with respect to any species that is proposed to be
listed or is listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its
proposed or designated critical habitat, if any is being designated.
Because the broad-snouted caiman's range does not include the United
States, no critical habitat is being designated with this rule.
Regulations implementing the interagency cooperation provision of the
ESA are codified at 50 CFR part 402. Section 7(a)(2) of the ESA
requires Federal agencies to ensure that activities they authorize,
fund, or carry out are not
[[Page 38189]]
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of a listed species or to
destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a proposed Federal
action may affect a listed species, the responsible Federal agency must
enter into formal consultation with the Service. Currently, with
respect to broad-snouted caiman, no Federal activities are known that
would require consultation.
Section 8(a) of the ESA authorizes the provision of limited
financial assistance for the development and management of programs
that the Secretary of the Interior determines to be necessary or useful
for the conservation of endangered or threatened species in foreign
countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) of the ESA authorize the Secretary to
encourage conservation programs for foreign listed species, and to
provide assistance for such programs, in the form of personnel and the
training of personnel.
The ESA and its implementing set forth a series of general
prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered and threatened
wildlife. These prohibitions, at 50 CFR 17.21 and 17.31 in part, make
it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United
States to ``take'' (includes harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound,
kill, trap, capture, or to attempt any of these) within the United
States or upon the high seas; import or export; deliver, receive,
carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce in the
course of commercial activity; or sell or offer for sale in interstate
or foreign commerce any endangered and threatened wildlife species. It
also is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship
any such wildlife that has been taken in violation of the ESA. Certain
exceptions apply to agents of the Service and State conservation
agencies.
Permits may be issued to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered and threatened wildlife species under certain
circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR
17.22 for endangered species and 50 CFR 17.32 for threatened species.
With regard to endangered wildlife, a permit may be issued for the
following purposes: for scientific purposes, to enhance the propagation
or survival of the species and for incidental taking in connection with
otherwise lawful activities. For threatened species, a permit may be
issued for the same activities, as well as zoological exhibition,
education, and special purposes consistent with the purposes of the
ESA.
Monitoring
We will continue to monitor the status of this species in
cooperation with the range countries.
Required Determinations
National Environmental Policy Act
We have determined that we do not need to prepare an environmental
assessment or environmental impact statement, as defined in the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), in
connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section 4(a) of the
Endangered Species Act. We published a notice outlining our reasons for
this determination in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR
49244).
References Cited
A complete list of the references used to develop this rule is
available upon request from the Endangered Species Program in our
Headquarters office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Author
The primary author of this rule is Amy Brisendine, Branch of
Foreign Species, Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Suite 400, Arlington, VA 22203.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.
Regulation Promulgation
For the reasons described in the preamble, we are amending part 17,
subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations,
as follows:
Part 17--[AMENDED]
0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C.
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.
0
2. Amend Sec. 17.11(h), the List of Endangered and Threatened
Wildlife, by revising the entries for ``Caiman, broad-snouted,''
``Caiman, brown,'' ``Caiman, common,'' and ``Caiman, yacare'' under
REPTILES to read as follows:
Sec. 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species Vertebrate
---------------------------------------------------------- population where When Critical Special
Historic range endangered or Status listed habitat rules
Common name Scientific name threatened
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* * * * * * *
Reptiles
* * * * * * *
Caiman, broad-snouted............. Caiman latirostris... Argentina, Bolivia, Bolivia, Brazil, E.............. 15 NA NA
Brazil, Paraguay, Paraguay, Uruguay.
Uruguay.
Caiman, broad-snouted............. Caiman latirostris... Argentina, Bolivia, Argentina........... T.............. 790 NA 17.42(c)
Brazil, Paraguay,
Uruguay.
Caiman, brown..................... Caiman crocodilus Mexico, Central Entire.............. T(S/A)......... 695 NA 17.42(c)
fuscus (includes America, Colombia,
Caiman crocodilus Ecuador, Venezuela,
chiapasius). Peru.
Caiman, common.................... Caiman crocodilus Bolivia, Brazil, Entire.............. T(S/A)......... 695 NA 17.42(c)
crocodilus. Colombia, Ecuador,
French Guiana,
Guyana, Peru,
Suriname, Venezuela.
[[Page 38190]]
Caiman, yacare.................... Caiman yacare........ Argentina, Bolivia, Entire.............. T.............. 3, 695 NA 17.42(c)
Brazil, Paraguay.
* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0
3. Amend Sec. 17.42 by revising paragraph (c)(1)(i) to read as
follows:
Sec. 17.42 Special rules--reptiles.
* * * * *
(c) * * *
(1) * * *
(i) Threatened crocodilian means any live or dead specimen of the
following species:
(A) Broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris) originating in
Argentina;
(B) Brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus fuscus, including Caiman
crocodilus chiapasius);
(C) Common caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus);
(D) Yacare caiman (Caiman yacare);
(E) Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus); and
(F) Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) originating in
Australia (also referred to as Australian saltwater crocodile).
* * * * *
Dated: May 29, 2013.
Stephen Guertin,
Acting Director, Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2013-15006 Filed 6-24-13; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P