[Federal Register Volume 78, Number 209 (Tuesday, October 29, 2013)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 64839-64871]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2013-25397]
[[Page 64839]]
Vol. 78
Tuesday,
No. 209
October 29, 2013
Part VI
Department of the Interior
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Fish and Wildlife Service
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50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for
Vandenberg Monkeyflower; Proposed Rule
Federal Register / Vol. 78 , No. 209 / Tuesday, October 29, 2013 /
Proposed Rules
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0078; 4500030113]
RIN 1018-AY27
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status
for Vandenberg Monkeyflower
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Proposed rule.
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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, propose to list
Vandenberg monkeyflower as an endangered species under the Endangered
Species Act. If we finalize this rule as proposed, it would extend the
Endangered Species Act's protections to this plant. The effect of this
regulation will be to add Vandenberg monkeyflower to the List of
Endangered and Threatened Plants under the Endangered Species Act.
DATES: We will accept all comments received or postmarked on or before
December 30, 2013. Comments submitted electronically using the Federal
eRulemaking Portal (see ADDRESSES section below) must be received by
11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the closing date. We must receive requests
for public hearings, in writing, at the address shown in FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT by December 13, 2013.
ADDRESSES: You may submit comments by one of the following methods:
(1) Electronically: Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal: http://www.regulations.gov and search for FWS-R8-ES-2013-0078, which is the
docket number for this rulemaking. Then, in the Search panel on the
left side of the screen, under the Document Type heading, click on the
Proposed Rules link to locate this document. You may submit a comment
by clicking on ``Comment Now!''
(2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public
Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R8-ES-2013-0078; Division of Policy and
Directives Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax
Drive, MS 2042-PDM; Arlington, VA 22203.
We request that you send comments only by the methods described
above. We will post all information received on http://www.regulations.gov. This generally means that we will post any
personal information you provide us (see the Information Requested
section below for more information).
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Stephen P. Henry, Acting Field
Supervisor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Ventura Fish and Wildlife
Office, 2493 Portola Road, Suite B, Ventura, CA 93003; telephone 805-
644-1766; facsimile 805-644-3958. If you use a telecommunications
device for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information Relay Service
(FIRS) at 800-877-8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Executive Summary
Why we need to publish a rule. Under the Endangered Species Act of
1973, as amended (16 U.S.C. 1531, et seq.) (Act), if a species is
determined to be an endangered or threatened species throughout all or
a significant portion of its range, we are required to promptly publish
a proposal in the Federal Register and make a determination on our
proposal within 1 year. Critical habitat shall be designated, to the
maximum extent prudent and determinable, for any species determined to
be an endangered or threatened species under the Act. Listing a species
as an endangered or threatened species and designations and revisions
of critical habitat can only be completed by issuing a rule.
This rule consists of a proposed rule to list Vandenberg
monkeyflower (previously identified as a candidate for listing by the
name Mimulus fremontii var. vandenbergensis, currently known as
Diplacus vandenbergensis, and hereafter referred to as Vandenberg
monkeyflower, with the exception of the Description and Taxonomy
section below) as an endangered species. This plant occurs in nine
locations exclusively on Burton Mesa, a distinct geographic region in
Santa Barbara County, California.
The basis for our action. Under the Act, we can determine that a
species is an endangered or threatened species based on any of five
factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C)
Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its
continued existence.
We have determined Vandenberg monkeyflower faces threats under
Factors A, D, and E. The greatest threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower is
the presence and expansion of invasive, nonnative plants that are
abundant on Burton Mesa, particularly occurring within or adjacent to
all known occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat includes sandy openings (canopy gaps) within the
dominant vegetation. Ground-disturbing activities (including wildfires)
create additional open areas that are invaded by nonnative plants,
which precludes establishment of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Furthermore,
the availability of habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower and its small
overall population size may be affected by a suite of threats
(including stochastic events such as wildfire and a changing climate)
acting synergistically on the species. Based on the best available
scientific and commercial information, we find that the species has a
restricted range, faces ongoing and future threats across its range,
and is in danger of extinction throughout all of its range.
We will seek peer review. We are seeking comments from
knowledgeable individuals with scientific expertise to review our
analysis of the best available science and application of that science
and to provide any additional scientific information to improve this
proposed rule. Because we will consider all comments and information
received during the comment period, our final determination may differ
from this proposal.
Information Requested
We intend that any final action resulting from this proposed rule
will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and
be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request
comments or information from the public, other concerned governmental
agencies, Native American tribes, the scientific community, industry,
or any other interested parties concerning this proposed rule. We
particularly seek comments concerning:
(1) The species' biology, range, and population trends, including:
(a) Habitat requirements for establishment, growth, and
reproduction;
(b) Genetics and taxonomy;
(c) Historical and current range including distribution patterns;
(d) Historical and current population levels, and current and
projected trends; and
(e) Past and ongoing conservation measures for the species, its
habitat, or both.
(2) The factors that are the basis for making a listing
determination for a species under section 4(a) of the Act (16 U.S.C.
1533(a)), which are:
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(a) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range;
(b) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes;
(c) Disease or predation;
(d) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or
(e) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued
existence.
(3) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning
any threats (or lack thereof) to Vandenberg monkeyflower and
regulations that may be addressing those threats.
(4) Additional information concerning the historical and current
status, range, distribution, and population size of Vandenberg
monkeyflower, including the locations of any additional occurrences of
this species.
(5) Current or planned activities in the areas occupied by
Vandenberg monkeyflower and possible impacts of these activities on
this species and its habitat.
(6) Information on the projected and reasonably likely impacts of
climate change on Vandenberg monkeyflower and its habitat.
(7) Information related to our interpretation and analysis of the
best scientific and commercial data and our proposed status
determination for the species.
Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as
scientific journal articles or other publications) to allow us to
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Please note that submissions merely stating support for or
opposition to the action under consideration without providing
supporting information may not meet the standard of information
required by section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act, which requires that
determinations as to whether any species is an endangered or threatened
species must be made ``solely on the basis of the best scientific and
commercial data available.''
You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed
rule by one of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. We request that you
send comments only by the methods described in ADDRESSES.
If you submit information via http://www.regulations.gov, your
entire submission--including any personal identifying information--will
be posted on the Web site. If your submission is made via a hardcopy
that includes personal identifying information, you may request at the
top of your document that we withhold this information from public
review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We
will post all hardcopy submissions on http://www.regulations.gov.
Please include sufficient information with your comments to allow us to
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be
available for public inspection at http://www.regulations.gov, or by
appointment during normal business hours at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, Ventura Field Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Previous Federal Actions
We first identified Vandenberg monkeyflower as a candidate species
in a notice of review published in the Federal Register on November 10,
2010 (75 FR 69222). Vandenberg monkeyflower was given a listing
priority number of 3, which denotes a subspecies [or variety] facing an
imminent threat of high magnitude. Notices of review reconfirming its
candidate status were also published in the Federal Register on October
26, 2011 (76 FR 66370), and November 21, 2012 (77 FR 69994). Candidate
taxa are plants and animals for which the Service has sufficient
information on their biological status and threats to propose them as
endangered or threatened under the Act, but for which development of a
proposed listing regulation is precluded by other higher priority
listing activities. We may identify a taxon as a candidate for listing
after we conduct an evaluation of its status on our own initiative, or
after we make a positive finding on a petition to list a species. No
petitions seeking the listing of Vandenberg monkeyflower have been
submitted nor have other Federal reviews been conducted for Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
On May 10, 2011, we filed a multiyear work plan as part of a
proposed settlement agreement with Wild Earth Guardians and others in a
consolidated case in the U.S. District Court for the District of
Columbia. On September 9, 2011, the court accepted our agreement with
plaintiffs in Endangered Species Act Section 4 Deadline Litig., Misc.
Action No. 10-377 (EGS), MDL Docket No. 2165 (D. DC) (known as the
``MDL case'') on a schedule to publish proposed rules or not-warranted
findings for the 251 species designated as candidates in 2010 no later
than September 30, 2016. We are submitting this proposed rule in
compliance with the MDL settlement agreement.
Elsewhere in today's Federal Register, we propose to designate
critical habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower under the Act.
Status Assessment for Vandenberg Monkeyflower
Background
It is our intent to discuss below only those topics directly
relevant to the listing of Vandenberg monkeyflower as endangered in
this section of the proposed rule.
Description and Taxonomy
Vandenberg monkeyflower is a small, annual herbaceous plant that
grows from 0.5 to 10 inches (in) (1.2 to 25.4 centimeters (cm)) tall.
The stems are glandular and usually green with purplish tinting. Leaves
are obovate (narrowly elliptic) and reach 1.2 in (3 cm) in length.
Plants produce a single flower or plants are branched producing
multiple flowers. The tubular yellow flowers are bilaterally
symmetrical, with the distal ends of the petals forming a unique
structure that is likened to a face; hence the common name
monkeyflower. Seed capsules are ovoid and reach 0.5 in (1.3 cm) in
length. The capsule splits open longitudinally from the tip to release
approximately 20 to 100 seeds.
Vandenberg monkeyflower was first described as Mimulus fremontii
(Benth.) A. Gray var. vandenbergensis D.M. Thompson (Thompson 2005, p.
134) as a member of the Scrophulariaceae (figwort family). This is the
name and family placement we have previously followed. Molecular
systematics studies examining members of the Scrophulariaceae,
including Mimulus, determined that this genus and a few others
constituted a separate monophyletic group warranting recognition at the
family rank as Phrymaceae (Beardsley and Olmstead 2002, pp. 1193-1101;
Olmstead 2002, p. 18). Placement of Mimulus in the family Phrymaceae is
recognized by species experts, is used in the recent flora of
California (Thompson 2012, pp. 988-998), and will be treated as such in
the upcoming volume of the Flora of North America.
In 2012, Barker et al. (2012) recognized a redefined genus Diplacus
that includes 46 taxa previously segregated as Mimulus, including
Vandenberg monkeyflower as Diplacus vandenbergensis (D.M. Thompson)
Nesom (Barker et al. 2012, p. 29). The citation in Barker et al. (2012,
p. 29) attributes the nomenclatural combination at the species rank to
Nesom in Phytoneuron 2012-47: 2, which was published electronically on
the same day as Barker et al. (2012). The
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current citation for Vandenberg monkeyflower is at the species rank as
Diplacus vandenbergensis (D.M. Thompson) G.L. Nesom. This combination
is accepted by species and genus experts and will be used in the
upcoming treatment in the Flora of North America. Accordingly, we will
use the correct name (Diplacus vandenbergensis) and family attribution
(Phrymaceae) throughout this and subsequent documents.
Life History
The life history of Vandenberg monkeyflower has not been thoroughly
studied, but certain characteristics appear similar to other small
annual herbs. Vandenberg monkeyflower is shallow-rooted (Thompson 2005,
p.131; Consortium of California Herbaria (Consortium 2010)) and has
seeds that germinate during winter rains, typically between November
and February (Thompson 2005, p. 23), which is similar to other small
annual species that grow in sandy openings in chaparral and are adapted
to the Mediterranean climate zone of California. For instance,
Lessingia glandulifera (lessingia) is an annual herb that grows in
sandy openings in chaparral, is shallow-rooted, and is commonly
associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower (Davis and Mooney 1985, p.
528). Rooting depth is positively related to above-ground size, with
annuals having the smallest above-ground size and rooting depth in the
soil (Schenk and Jackson 2002, pp. 484-485).
Vandenberg monkeyflower is sensitive to annual levels of rainfall
(Thompson 2005, p. 23), and, therefore, germination of resident seed
banks may be low or nonexistent in unfavorable years, with little or no
visible aboveground expression of the species. Many annual monkeyflower
species, including Vandenberg monkeyflower, need early rainfall along
with continued rains in late winter or early spring for a substantial
number of seeds to germinate, and do not respond well when only later
rainfall is available (Thompson 2005, p. 23; Fraga in litt. 2012).
Vandenberg monkeyflower flowers mostly from late March through June
with fruits maturing from late April through July (Thompson 2005, p.
130).
Seed banks develop when a plant produces more viable seeds than
germinate in any given year. Seed banks contribute to the long-term
persistence of a species by sustaining them through periods when
conditions are not conducive to adequately germinate, reproduce, and
replenish the seed bank (such as when there is not sufficient rainfall
for plants to germinate, grow, and produce enough seeds to maintain the
population at the same size from year to year) (Rees and Long 1992,
entire; Adams et al. 2005, pp. 432-434; Satterthwaite et al. 2007,
entire). The annual differences in the numbers and location of
aboveground plants indicate the presence of a seed bank.
The reproductive biology of Vandenberg monkeyflower has not been
specifically studied; however, it is likely similar to closely related
Diplacus species that occur in similar habitats. In general, annual
species of Diplacus are self-compatible (able to be fertilized by its
own pollen) but are also visited by a wide array of pollinators, which
results in a mixed mating system that utilizes both self-fertilization
and cross-fertilization (Sutherland and Vickery 1988, p. 334; Leclerc-
Potvin and Ritland 1994, pp. 201-204; Fraga in litt. 2012). The large
size of the flower relative to the size of the plant suggests that
Vandenberg monkeyflower is allocating significant resources into
attracting pollinators; therefore, this species is thought to typically
breed through outcrossing, and is dependent on pollinators to achieve
seed production (Fraga in litt. 2012).
Species of Diplacus are predominantly bee-pollinated, although the
genus also includes species that are pollinated by hummingbirds, hawk
moths (Sphingidae), beeflies (Bombyliidae), and other flies (order
Diptera) (Wu et al. 2008, p. 224). Species of bees that have been
observed to visit flowers of Vandenberg monkeyflower include sweat bees
(Dufourea versatilis rubriventris), miner bees (Perdita nitens,
Caliopsis [Nomadopsis] fracta and C. Nomadopsis trifolii), mason bees
(Hoplitis product bernardina), and leaf-cutter bees (Anthidium
collectum, Chelostoma cockerelli, C. minutum, C. phaceliae,
Chelostomopsis rubifloris, and Ashmeadiella timberlakei timberlakei)
(Krombein et al. 1979, pp. 1863-2030; Bugguide 2012; The Xerces Society
2012). Additionally, Inouye (in litt. 2012) observed that small
solitary bees were the most common pollinators on three other species
of small annual monkeyflower species from dry and mesic habitats (D.
androsaceus, D. angustatus, and D. douglasii); and Fraga (in litt.
2012) has observed halictid bees (Halictidae) on other small
monkeyflower species.
Seeds of Vandenberg monkeyflower are small and light in weight,
dispersing primarily by gravity and also by water and wind over
relatively short distances (Thompson 2005, p. 130; Fraga in litt.
2012). The small size of the seed makes it likely that short-distance
dispersal could also be facilitated by ants, as has been noted for
other small-seeded plant taxa (Cain et al. 1998, pp. 328-330). Given
that the Burton Mesa area is subject to occasional high winds (see
discussion in Climate section below), long-distance dispersal likely
occurs during these wind events. Wind dispersal results in a random
dispersal of seeds, some of which fall into suitable habitat and some
do not.
Geographic Setting
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs only at low elevations and close to
the coast in a distinct region in western Santa Barbara County known as
Burton Mesa (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, p. 2). Burton Mesa is a
physiographic region situated between the Purisima Hills to the north
and the Santa Ynez River to the south. The topography of Burton Mesa
comprises a low, flat-topped series of hills averaging 400 feet (ft)
(133 meters (m)) in elevation (Ferren et al. 1984, p. 3; Dibblee 1988).
Level upland expanses from 328 to 394 ft (100 to 120 m) above sea level
are dissected by streams that have formed wide valleys with short steep
slopes (Davis 1987, p. 318). Underlying this region is the Burton Mesa
dune sheet, which extends from Shuman Canyon on Vandenberg Air Force
Base (AFB) in the north, roughly southeast along the southern slopes of
the Purisima Hills and eastward to a point approximately 22 mi (35 km)
from the present shoreline in the Santa Ynez River Valley (Cooper 1967,
pp. 89-91; Hunt 1993, pp. 8-9).
Climate
Burton Mesa experiences a Mediterranean climate, with mild, moist
winters and moderately warm, rainless summers. The region is strongly
influenced by the prevailing westerly transoceanic air currents. Late
afternoon and early evening are often characterized by onshore breezes
or winds during most of the year, but winds are strongest and
persistent in late spring and early summer. A marine layer or fog
characterizes this coastal region and is heaviest during late spring
and early summer mornings. Frost is also a regular occurrence in
winter, especially in low-lying areas (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 39).
Habitat
Burton Mesa supports a mosaic of several native vegetation types,
including maritime chaparral, maritime chaparral mixed with coastal
scrub, oak woodland, and small patches of native grasslands (Wilken and
Wardlaw 2010,
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p. 2). The maritime chaparral on Burton Mesa is referred to as Burton
Mesa chaparral (Odion et al. 1992, pp. 5-6; Sawyer et al. 2009, p.
376), and is dominated by evergreen shrubs and scattered multi-trunked
Quercus agrifolia (coast live oak) that form open stands to almost
impenetrable thickets over large areas of Burton Mesa, with heights
reaching up to 13 ft (4 m) (Gevirtz et al. 2007, pp. 95-96). The
dominant endemic species of Burton Mesa chaparral include Ceanothus
(Ceanothus impressus var. impressus (Santa Barbara ceanothus) and C.
cuneatus var. fascicularis (Lompoc ceanothus)) and Arctostaphylos
(Arctostaphylos purissima (Purisima manzanita) and A. rudis (shagbark
manzanita)), along with the more widespread Adenostoma fasciculatum
(chamise), Heteromeles arbutifolia (toyon), Cercocarpus betuloides
(birchleaf mountain mahogany), Salvia mellifera (black sage), and
Rhamnus californica (California coffeeberry).
Coast live oak is an important dominant in many places on Burton
Mesa, attaining 40 to 70 percent crown cover in older undisturbed
patches of habitat. Ericameria ericoides (mock heather), with its wind-
dispersed seeds, is most often observed at trail edges in dense
chaparral, but appears in greater numbers in large open areas and
coastal scrub (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 96). Annual grassland and
coastal sage scrub characterized by mock heather, Artemisia californica
(California sagebrush), and Baccharis pilularis (coyote brush) occur on
formerly cleared sites and on xeric (dry) slopes. Some poorly drained
upland sites in the central and western portions of Burton Mesa form
seasonal wetlands characterized by native perennial grasses such as
Elymus glaucus (blue wildrye) and vernal pool species including
Eryngium armatum (coastal button-celery) (Davis et al. 1988, p. 172).
The vegetation transitions to coastal sage scrub habitat as it nears
the ocean and into other terrestrial habitats east of Purisima Canyon
on the eastern side of La Purisima Mission State Historic Park (SHP)
(Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 86). The edaphic (soil) variable with the
greatest effect on vegetation composition is the depth of soil
overlying the bedrock or subsoil pan (Davis et al. 1988, p. 188). Soils
on Burton Mesa become very shallow toward the north and west, and
chaparral shrubs decrease in height and density with decreasing soil
depth (Odion et al. 1992, p. 6).
Vandenberg monkeyflower does not grow beneath the canopy of shrubs
or oaks, but rather in the sandy openings (canopy gaps) that occur in-
between shrubs. Sandy openings have been noted for their high abundance
and diversity of annual and perennial herbaceous species, compared to
those found in the understory of the shrub canopy (Hickson 1987, Davis
et al. 1989; Keeley et al. 1981; Horton and Kraebel 1955). Vandenberg
monkeyflower is currently known to occur within sandy openings at nine
extant locations; one additional location is potentially extirpated
(see Distribution of Vandenberg Monkeyflower below). Because portions
of Burton Mesa are inaccessible and difficult to survey, Vandenberg
monkeyflower has the potential to occur in areas where it has not yet
been observed within sandy openings. However, not all sandy openings
within the shrub canopy appear to be currently suitable for Vandenberg
monkeyflower because some of the sandy openings consist of sands that
structurally seem more consolidated and currently do not support this
species (Rutherford in litt. 2012). To date, all of the extant
occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower are within sandy openings where
the structure of the sands appears loose (Rutherford in litt. 2012).
The amount of Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat currently
available has changed over time. Prior to 1938, approximately 23,550 ac
(9,350 ha) of maritime chaparral was present on Burton Mesa (Hickson
1987, p. 34). For the purposes of this analysis, we determined in 2012
that approximately 10,057 ac (4,070 ha) of maritime chaparral habitat
remain on Burton Mesa, which represents a loss of 53 percent of the
original upland habitat (Figure 1; Service 2012a, unpublished data). We
then estimated the amount of Burton Mesa considered as sandy openings
where Vandenberg monkeyflower could potentially occur. Based on
inspection of color imagery (National Agriculture Imagery Program
(NAIP) 2009) of areas within Burton Mesa where this species occurs, we
used the range of image pixel values among 20 point locations to define
bare ground while all other pixel values defined vegetated areas. We
calculated the total area encompassed by bare ground and vegetation by
multiplying the number of bare ground and vegetated pixels by 1 square
meter (the ground resolution of a pixel in the NAIP data). Roads,
buried pipeline rights-of-way, and building footprints were removed to
estimate the percent of Burton Mesa that currently comprise sandy
openings.
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P
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[GRAPHIC] [TIFF OMITTED] TP29OC13.003
Results indicate up to approximately 20 percent of the total area
of remaining Burton Mesa chaparral comprises sandy openings, which is a
high estimate because this may include areas of bare ground that are
not sandy openings suitable for Vandenberg monkeyflower, such as
walking trails (Service 2012b, unpublished data). The percentage
[[Page 64845]]
would likely change over time depending on whether chaparral stands
continue to age and increase in canopy cover, or are burned to
temporarily increase the amount of sandy openings. Additionally, the
location of sandy openings on Burton Mesa would likely shift over time
because individual shrubs continue to mature and increase in cover or
die, creating temporary gaps in the shrub canopy.
The structure of Burton Mesa chaparral comprises a mosaic of
vegetation patches interspersed with sandy openings that varies from
place to place. Within a given substrate, the chaparral composition is
a reflection of stand age or shrub canopy cover, disturbance history
(whether the area was cleared in the past or nonnative species were
planted), history of wildfire, and distance from the coast (Davis et
al. 1988, p. 188; Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 97). Although the sandy
openings that Vandenberg monkeyflower occupies are only a small percent
of the total amount of Burton Mesa chaparral habitat, because the sandy
openings and vegetation form a mosaic vegetation community that
structurally may vary over time, it is impossible to separate out the
sandy openings from the rest of the Burton Mesa chaparral vegetation.
Therefore, for the purposes of this rule, we consider suitable
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat to consist of Burton Mesa chaparral,
which would include the sandy openings and the dominant vegetation that
characterize this vegetation community.
Other low-growing native annual species that often co-occur with
Vandenberg monkeyflower in sandy openings include: Mucronea californica
(California spineflower); Castillleja exserta (purple owl's clover);
Logfia filaginoides (California filago); Lessingia glandulifera
(lessingia); Layia glandulosa (white tidy tips); Chaenactis
glabriuscula (pincushion); and Plantago erecta (plantain). Frequently
co-occurring herbaceous native perennial species include Horkelia
cuneata (horkelia) and Croton californicus (croton) (Meyer in litt.
2010a). Nonnative annual and perennial species are also known to occur
in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. Nonnative annual species include
(but are not limited to) Bromus diandrus (ripgut brome) and Hypochaeris
glabra (smooth cat's-ear) (Meyer in litt. 2010a). Nonnative perennial
species include: Ehrharta calycina (South African perennial veldt grass
(veldt grass)), Carpobrotus edulis (iceplant), Brassica tournefortii
(Sahara mustard), and Cortaderia jubata (pampas grass).
Land Ownership
The western portion of Burton Mesa is Federal land within
Vandenberg AFB (Davis et al. 1988, p. 170). Vandenberg AFB contains
approximately 99,000 acres (ac) (40,064 hectares (ha)); approximately
8,114 ac (3,284 ha) is maritime chaparral mixed with coastal sage
scrub, veldt grass, pampas grass, herbs, and coast live oak on Burton
Mesa within Base boundaries (Air Force 2011c, Appendix A--Figure 5-3;
Lum in litt. 2012d). Vandenberg AFB is managed by the U.S. Air Force.
To the east of Vandenberg AFB, the State of California received
5,078 ac (2,055 ha) from Union Oil Company in 1990 as part of a
settlement of two antitrust lawsuits (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 2). The
land acquired by the State formed the Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
(Reserve) and encompasses most of the maritime chaparral that occurs to
the east of Vandenberg AFB (Odion et al. 1992, p. 6). The western
boundary of the Reserve abuts the eastern boundary of Vandenberg AFB
and is delineated by a 100-ft (30-m) wide fuel break (a gap in
vegetation designed to act as a barrier to slow progress of a potential
wildfire). Additional lands have since been added to the Reserve since
1990, bringing its total acreage to 5,186 ac (2,099 ha) (Gevirtz et al.
2007, p. 3). The Reserve contains five management units (Vandenberg,
Santa Lucia, Purisima Hills, Encina, and La Purisima) and is situated
on the eastern Burton Mesa and foothills of the Purisima Hills (Gevirtz
et al. 2007, p. 7). The Reserve is managed by the California Department
of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW). CDFW was formerly California Department of
Fish and Game (CDFG), and because historic documents prior to 2013 use
this old name, the abbreviations CDFG and CDFW will both be used
interchangeably for references cited throughout the remainder of this
document.
Residential communities such as Vandenberg Village, Clubhouse
Estates, Mesa Oaks, and Mission Hills fragment (divide into small
noncontiguous pieces) the Reserve and other non-Federal lands on Burton
Mesa. The southern portion of the mesa and beyond the southern boundary
of the Reserve comprises agricultural lands as well as land owned by
the Department of Justice (which houses the U.S. Bureau of Prisons
Federal Penitentiary Complex at Lompoc (Lompoc Penitentiary)). The
jagged northern perimeter of Burton Mesa is adjacent to an active oil
field operated by Plains Exploration and Production Company (PXP).
To the east of the Reserve, La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
(SHP) contains 980 ac (397 ha) (California State Parks 1991, p. 9) and
is separated from the Reserve by the residential communities of Mesa
Oaks and Mission Hills. La Purisima Mission SHP also abuts the southern
boundary of the La Purisima Management Unit of the Reserve. California
State Parks manages La Purisima Mission SHP.
Distribution of Vandenberg Monkeyflower
For the purposes of this rule, we define the following terms to
refer to individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower and where they occur.
We use the term ``occurrence'' (consistent with the definition for
``element occurrence'' used by the California Natural Diversity Data
Base (CNDDB)) to be a grouping of plants (individuals) within 0.25 mi
(0.4 km) proximity (CNDDB 2010). There may be one or more discrete
groupings of plants (individuals) within a single occurrence. We use
the term ``location'' to refer only to a particular site, area, or
region, as in ``at that location,'' with no relation to an assemblage
of plants (e.g., polygon, occurrence, population).
We generally describe the area on Burton Mesa where Vandenberg
monkeyflower currently occurs as a crescent-shaped area approximately 7
mi (10.7 km) long by 2 mi (3.0 km) wide. All extant individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower are located within this area (Consortium)
2010), almost exclusively occurring on thin layers of aeolian- (wind-)
deposited sands between approximately 100 and 400 ft (30 to 122 m) in
elevation (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, p. 2). We based the description of
suitable habitat on viewing U.S. Geological Survey maps and Google
Earth(copyright), and looking at how the occurrences of
Vandenberg monkeyflower were spread across the landscape. We did not
analyze biological factors such as vegetation or soil type when
describing this general area where the species occurs. A discussion of
where Vandenberg monkeyflower has been historically observed and where
it is currently known to occur follows below. Additionally, Figure 2
includes the known distribution of Vandenberg monkeyflower across its
range based on the most recent survey data; Table 1 lists the names of
the occurrences, land ownership, and status of each known and
historical occurrence.
[[Page 64846]]
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BILLING CODE 4310-55-C
Historical Locations
We are aware of historical herbarium collections of Vandenberg
monkeyflower from two locations; one of these (Santa Rita Valley) no
longer supports habitat for this species (Consortium 2010), and we
consider it to be extirpated. The second collection was made from Lower
Pine Canyon; although plants have not been relocated at lower Pine
Canyon, we consider this collection to be a part of the Pine Canyon
occurrence, which is extant. In addition to these two collections, an
[[Page 64847]]
historical occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower was observed, but not
collected, from Lower Santa Lucia Canyon; we consider it to be
potentially extirpated. Additional detail on the occurrence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower at these three historical locations is provided
below.
The first historical collection of Vandenberg monkeyflower was made
in 1931 from the Santa Ynez Valley approximately 5 mi (8 km) west of
Buellton along State Highway 246 and east of La Purisima (Consortium
2010; Santa Barbara Botanic Garden (SBBG) 2005). This site was surveyed
multiple times in 2006 (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, Appendix 2); however,
no Vandenberg monkeyflower were seen. At some point prior to 1931, seed
from Burton Mesa may have blown downwind to this location, but it
appears that Vandenberg monkeyflower has been extirpated at this
location because no suitable habitat remains due to agricultural
conversion (including vineyards and berries (Elvin 2009, pers. obs.)
and heavily grazed pastureland (Wilken and Wardlaw 2010, Appendix 2).
Therefore, we consider the occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower to be
extirpated from this location.
The second historical collection of Vandenberg monkeyflower was
made in 1960 near lower Pine Canyon (part of the existing Pine Canyon
occurrence) on the eastern edge of Vandenberg AFB (Jepson Herbarium
2006; Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden 2006). Vandenberg monkeyflower
had not been documented since it was collected there in 1960; however,
it was observed in 2010 and 2012 up-canyon from this historical
location (Lum in litt. 2012a, Rutherford in litt. 2012) where suitable
habitat remains. (See further discussion of Pine Canyon in Current
Locations section below). The description of the location of this
historical occurrence is not precise enough to determine that the
location is distinct from, and not part of, the location where an
extant occurrence was observed in 2010 and 2012 in upper Pine Canyon
(See Occurrences Located on Vandenberg AFB section below). Therefore,
we consider the historical occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower to be
part of the extant Pine Canyon occurrence.
The third historical location of Vandenberg monkeyflower was
observed, but not collected, in 1985 in the southwestern portion of the
Vandenberg Management Unit on the Reserve (Hickson in litt. 2007).
Although no collection was made, we have a high confidence in the
accuracy of the observation (known as the Lower Santa Lucia Canyon
occurrence; Figure 2) because it was made during the course of a
vegetation study for a master's thesis (Hickson in litt. 2007). The
location had not been searched for the species between 1985 and 2011;
in 2012 (a low rainfall year), CDFW staff (Meyer) conducted a cursory
survey and was unable to relocate the species (Meyer in litt. 2012c).
Because it has been approximately 30 years (albeit with little survey
effort between 1985 and 2011) since it was last observed, and suitable
habitat remains but is overcrowded with invasive, nonnative plants (see
Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants), we consider the occurrence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower at this historical location to be potentially
extirpated.
Current Status of Vandenberg Monkeyflower
Because we do not have a wealth of survey data over multiple years
to analyze a trend in the long-term persistence of Vandenberg
monkeyflower, we consider it most appropriate to use suitable habitat
trends as a surrogate for the species' trend. Thus, an increase or
decrease in the amount of suitable habitat likely results in a
respective increase or decrease in the Vandenberg monkeyflower
population.
Surveys for Vandenberg monkeyflower have occurred across this
species' range on Burton Mesa during recent years, although the level
of effort and precision of the surveys varied between the different
biologists who conducted surveys. In 2006, the first year that a
concerted effort was made to survey most of the known locations,
approximately 2,700 individuals were observed during surveys throughout
the known range of the species (Ballard 2006; Wilken and Wardlaw 2010,
pp. 2-3, Appendices 1, 2). In 2010, the Air Force observed
approximately 5,200 individuals during surveys conducted on 376 ac (152
ha) within Vandenberg AFB (Air Force 2012).
In other years, individuals and agencies (including Air Force,
CDFW, and our biologists) have conducted opportunistic surveys of
specific sites where this species occurs, but rangewide surveys have
not been conducted since 2006. Ballard (in litt. 2009) searched for
Vandenberg monkeyflower in areas between extant occurrences and on the
periphery of the plant's known distribution but found no plants.
Additionally, the species has not been observed in some areas with
sandy openings that appear to be suitable habitat (Ballard in litt.
2009). These areas: (1) Appear slightly degraded, even though many
species commonly associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower were often
abundant; (2) contain small pockets of sandy openings, but the sands
did not appear to contain a loose enough structure to support
Vandenberg monkeyflower; or (3) harbor a dominant amount of invasive,
nonnative plants within sandy openings. The ability for Vandenberg
monkeyflower to grow in sandy openings may depend upon the stand age
and disturbance history of the location, as well as edaphic factors
(Davis et al. 1988, p. 188), along with the amount of rainfall, size of
the seed bank, and competition with invasive, nonnative plants.
The following sections provide a description of nine specific
locations (which contain all extant occurrences identified in Figure 2)
where Vandenberg monkeyflower is known to occur, hereby referred to as
nine occurrences. All known occurrences are on the following lands:
Vandenberg AFB (four occurrences), Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
(three occurrences), and La Purisima Mission SHP (two occurrences) (See
Figure 2; Table 1).
Table 1--Vandenberg Monkeyflower Locations, Land Ownership, and Current
Status
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Vandenberg monkeyflower
locations Land ownership Current status
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Current Locations
------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Oak Canyon................... Vandenberg AFB.... Extant.
2. Pine Canyon (includes Vandenberg AFB.... Extant.
historical location in lower
Pine Canyon).
3. Lake Canyon.................. Vandenberg AFB.... Extant.
4. Santa Lucia Canyon........... Vandenberg AFB.... Extant.
5. Volans Avenue................ Burton Mesa Extant.
Ecological
Reserve.
[[Page 64848]]
6. Clubhouse Estates............ Burton Mesa Extant.
Ecological
Reserve and
Private lands.
7. Davis Creek.................. Burton Mesa Extant.
Ecological
Reserve.
8. La Purisima West............. La Purisima Extant.
Mission State
Historic Park.
9. La Purisima East............. La Purisima Extant.
Mission State
Historic Park.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Historical Locations
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Santa Rita Valley............... Private lands..... Extirpated.
Lower Santa Lucia Canyon........ Burton Mesa Potentially
Ecological Extirpated.
Reserve.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Occurrences Located on Vandenberg AFB
There are four locations on Vandenberg AFB that are known to
support occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower. We refer to these four
locations as the Oak, Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia Canyons occurrences.
(1) Oak Canyon. Vandenberg monkeyflower was reported as common in
the late 1980s or early 1990s (Odion in litt. 2006) at the mouth of Oak
Canyon on the eastern edge of the Base. Four individuals were found in
2006 (Ventura Fish and Wildlife Herbarium (VFWO) 2013). Although no
plants were found in 2010 or 2012 (Air Force 2012, p. 1; Lum in litt.
2012b; Rutherford in litt. 2012), as discussed above in the
Background--Life History section, we consider the species to be extant
at this location because it has only been 7 years since individuals
were last seen, and it is likely that a residual seed bank is still
present.
(2) Pine Canyon. Approximately 365 individuals were present in
multiple scattered occurrences in upper Pine Canyon in 2010 (Lum in
litt. 2012b), and approximately 100 individuals were observed in 2012
(Rutherford in litt. 2012).
(3) Lake Canyon. This occurrence contains the greatest number of
individuals throughout this species' range and accounts for most of the
individuals on Vandenberg AFB. Approximately 1,500 individuals were
observed in 2006 and 1,000 individuals in 2007 (Elvin in litt. 2009;
VFWO 2013). The most recent surveys in Lake Canyon occurred in 2010 and
documented approximately 4,817 individuals (Lum in litt. 2012b),
although these surveys likely included a larger portion of the canyon
than surveys conducted in 2006 and 2007. Even though surveys have not
occurred at this location since 2010, plants were also observed at
several sites in Lake Canyon in 2012. Therefore, we consider the
species to be extant at this location (Rutherford in litt. 2012). A
seed bank is likely present.
(4) Santa Lucia Canyon. This canyon is located on the eastern edge
of Vandenberg AFB at the junction of Santa Lucia and Lakes Canyons and
abuts the Reserve that lies to the east. Approximately 25 individuals
were observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006), and 1 individual was observed in
2010 (Lum in litt. 2012b). Although surveys have not occurred at this
location since 2010, we consider the species to be extant at this
location because it has only been 3 years since the species was last
seen, and it is likely that a residual seed bank is still present.
Occurrences Located on Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs or partially occurs (i.e., part of
the occurrence is on the Reserve and part of the occurrence is off the
Reserve) at three locations within the Reserve. We refer to these
locations as the Volans Avenue, Clubhouse Estates, and Davis Creek
occurrences.
(5) Volans Avenue. Individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower have been
observed in the Santa Lucia Management Unit of the Reserve immediately
west of Volans Avenue, between a portion of Vandenberg Village and
California State Highway 1. The Santa Lucia Management Unit abuts the
eastern boundary of Vandenberg AFB. Five plants were observed in 2003,
and one plant was observed in 2007 (Meyer in litt. 2007). In the other
years between 2004 and 2006, and in 2009, no plants were found (Meyer
in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt. 2007; Meyer in litt. 2009a). Although
no surveys have occurred since 2009, we consider the species to be
extant at this location because it has only been 6 years since
individuals were last seen, and it is likely that a residual seed bank
is still present.
(6) Clubhouse Estates. Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs east of
Vandenberg Village on both the privately owned Clubhouse Estates
residential development project site, which has ongoing but differing
levels of development since 2006, and an adjacent portion of the Encina
Management Unit of the Reserve. Prior to 2006, most of the plants
occurred on private property at the Clubhouse Estates project site
(Scientific Applications International Corporation (SAIC) 2005b, Figure
4.3-2). Approximately 100-285 individuals were observed in 2006 (Wilken
and Wardlaw 2010, Appendices 1, 2), and approximately 350-400
individuals were observed in 2009 (McGowan in litt. 2009). Although no
surveys have occurred since 2009, we consider the species to be extant
at this location because it has only been 4 years since individuals
were last seen, and it is likely that both plants and a residual seed
bank are present.
(7) Davis Creek. Vandenberg monkeyflower is located along the
western border of the Encina Management Unit of the Reserve and a
right-of-way (ROW) for California State Highway 1 managed by the
California Department of Transportation. Davis Creek is east of
Vandenberg Village and less than 1 mi (1.6 km) south of the Vandenberg
monkeyflower individuals at Clubhouse Estates.
The Davis Creek occurrence comprises four locations where
Vandenberg monkeyflower has been observed. At ``west of Highway 1,''
researchers reported 3 individuals in 2006 (Ballard 2006),
approximately 100 in 2009 (Rutherford and Ballard in litt. 2009), and
60 in 2010 (Meyer in litt. 2010a). At ``north of Burton Mesa
Boulevard,'' four individuals were observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006), and
seven individuals were observed in 2010 (Meyer in litt. 2010a).
Subsequently, 180 individuals were observed in 2010 at a third location
east of the Vandenberg Village Community Services District Pump Station
and between Highway 1 and Burton Mesa Boulevard (Meyer in litt. 2010a).
Similarly, approximately 500
[[Page 64849]]
individuals were observed in 2010 at a fourth location northwest of the
location where 180 individuals were observed in 2010, and to the west
of the 7 individuals observed in 2010 that were located north of the
Burton Mesa Boulevard. Individuals were also observed at several of
these locations in 2012 and 2013. We consider the species to be extant
at this location because individuals have been seen as recently as 2013
(Meyer in litt. 2013).
Occurrences Located on La Purisima Mission SHP
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs at two separate locations within La
Purisima Mission SHP. We refer to these locations of Vandenberg
monkeyflower as the La Purisima West and La Purisima East occurrences.
(8) La Purisima West. Vandenberg monkeyflower that occur on the
west side of the park are located in a discrete location. Approximately
300 individuals were observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006), and approximately
1,500 individuals were observed in 2009 (Rutherford and Ballard in
litt. 2009). Subsequently, individuals were observed here in 2010 and
2011 but not counted (Rutherford in litt. 2012). Although no
observations have occurred since 2011, we consider the species to be
extant at this location because it has been only 2 years since
individuals were last observed (although not counted), and it is likely
that both plants and a residual seed bank are present.
(9) La Purisima East. Vandenberg monkeyflower that occur on the
east side of the park are made up of hundreds of scattered individuals.
Approximately 850 individuals were observed in 2006 (Ballard 2006) and
approximately 400 individuals were observed in 2009 (Rutherford and
Ballard in litt. 2009). Although no surveys have occurred since 2009,
we consider the species to be extant at this location because it has
been only 4 years since individuals were last seen, and it is likely
that both plants and a residual seed bank are present.
Summary--Distribution and Status of Vandenberg Monkeyflower
In summary, we identified one extirpated location where Vandenberg
monkeyflower no longer exists, one location that is considered
potentially extirpated, and nine locations where Vandenberg
monkeyflower is currently considered extant on Burton Mesa. Most of
these extant locations contain multiple scattered individuals, and thus
we refer to these areas as nine occurrences, as defined above. We
generally characterized the size of Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences
based on multiple observations over a period of years. Two of the nine
occurrences (22 percent; Lake Canyon and La Purisima West) each
contained over 1,000 individuals in multiple years and are the two
largest known occurrences of this species. These largest occurrences
include a high of approximately 1,500 individuals at Lake Canyon in
2006 (Elvin in litt. 2009; VFWO 2013) and 1,500 individuals at La
Purisima West in 2009 (Rutherford and Ballard in litt. 2009). Four
occurrences (44 percent; Pine Canyon, Clubhouse Estates, Davis Creek,
and La Purisima East) each contained hundreds of plants ranging between
100 and 850 individuals in multiple years. Finally, three occurrences
(33 percent; Oak Canyon, Santa Lucia Canyon, and Volans Avenue) are the
smallest, with a range of no individuals observed in most years
surveyed (Volans Avenue) to a high of 25 individuals observed in 2006
(Santa Lucia Canyon). Although trend data are not available, these data
indicate that the aboveground expression of Vandenberg monkeyflower for
7 of the 9 occurrences (78 percent) harbor 850 or fewer individuals.
Because we have only one rangewide survey for this species, and
because based on our current data and the likelihood that Vandenberg
monkeyflower forms a seed bank and expresses variable numbers of
aboveground individuals from year to year (see Background--Life History
section above), we are unable to determine a trend in the Vandenberg
monkeyflower population. Therefore, we will use trends in the amount of
suitable habitat as a surrogate for the species' trend.
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), and its implementing
regulations at 50 CFR part 424, set forth the procedures for adding
species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and
Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Act, we may list a species based
on any of the following five factors: (A) The present or threatened
destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B)
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade
factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be
warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in
combination. Each of these factors is discussed below.
Factor A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or
Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range
Factor A threats to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat include
development (military, State lands, and residential), utility
maintenance and miscellaneous activities, invasive, nonnative plants,
anthropogenic (influenced by human-caused activity) fire, recreation,
and climate change. These impact categories overlap or act in concert
with each other to adversely affect Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat.
Development--Military
Development of Vandenberg AFB military facilities within the last
century directly removed approximately 6,104 ac (2,470 ha) of Burton
Mesa chaparral habitat. Approximately 40 percent of the chaparral that
historically occurred on Vandenberg AFB remains, mostly south and east
of the primary developed area on Vandenberg AFB (Odion et al. 1992, p.
12). West of the developed area has been impacted by numerous trails,
roads, and other ground disturbances. Much of the chaparral habitat
that once existed to the north of the primary developed area was
cultivated or type-converted (disturbance resulting in a new dominant
plant community) to rangeland prior to military use. Areas that
historically consisted of chaparral vegetation have regenerated to
nonnative grassland, usually with shrubs, and are no longer considered
suitable habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower. This nonnative grassland
is dominated by veldt grass and several species of nonnative annual
grasses including Bromus spp. (bromes), Avena spp. (oatgrass), and
Vulpia spp. (silvergrass) (Odion et al. 1992, p. 11).
The Air Force maintains multiple launch facilities at Vandenberg
AFB to accomplish their mission (Air Force 2011c, p. 7). There are no
launch facilities in suitable habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower, and
the Air Force is not likely to construct new launch facilities within
suitable habitat because potential construction would likely occur near
the coastline and away from more inland, human-populated areas (Air
Force 2009a, p. 16). Additionally, the siting of future facilities is
expected to capitalize on existing infrastructure; therefore,
disturbance in undeveloped areas would be minimized (Air Force 2009a,
p. 32).
[[Page 64850]]
Development--State Lands
Prior to the State Lands Commission acquisition of the Reserve
lands in 1990, four land uses were identified in the Reserve area,
including agricultural operations, military operations, extractive
industries, and urban development (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 54). The
Reserve encompasses 5,186 ac (2,099 ha) and there has been no threat
from new development. However, local governmental agencies and public
utility companies maintain existing utilities and easements throughout
the Reserve (see Factor A--Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous
Activities below).
La Purisima Mission SHP has operated as a State Park since 1937
(California State Parks 1991, p. 107). The current park boundaries
encompass a total of 1,900 ac (769 ha). The park unit consists of the
historical area, natural area with riding and hiking trails,
agriculture, and the maintenance/service and residential area. The
total amount of native vegetation is approximately 1,770 ac (716 ha)
(Service 2013, unpublished data). There is no current or future threat
of habitat destruction from development at La Purisima Mission SHP
because the park was established to preserve cultural and natural
features of the area.
Development--Private Lands
Three residential communities exist on Burton Mesa east of
Vandenberg AFB's boundary including Vandenberg Village, Mission Hills,
and Mesa Oaks. These communities harbor associated infrastructure
(including major roads such as California State Highway 1, Harris Grade
Road, Rucker Road, and Burton Mesa Boulevard), all of which fragment
the Burton Mesa chaparral. Vandenberg Village and associated golf
course comprise approximately 720 ac (291 ha). Thus, at least 2,000 ac
(809 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral habitat were removed as a result of
past development of these three residential communities and their
associated infrastructure.
Presented below are three currently approved or proposed projects
on private lands that harbor suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat.
Data are not available on the specific acreage of sandy openings
expected to be lost as a result of these projects, but data are
provided on the loss of Burton Mesa chaparral and the number of
individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower observed at, or adjacent to,
these project sites.
(1) Clubhouse Estates is a private development located east of
Vandenberg Village (LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 1). Santa Barbara County
approved the Clubhouse Estates housing development in August 2005
(County of Santa Barbara Planning Commission 2005, p. 4). Approximately
33 ac (13 ha) were proposed to be developed into residential lots; the
remaining 120 ac (49 ha) was proposed as open space (LFR, Inc. 2006, p.
1). Most of the Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals known to occur at
this location were inside or within 10 ft (3 m) of the approved
development footprint that was graded (SAIC 2005b, Figure 4.3-2).
Additionally, the ground disturbance increased the extent of invasive,
nonnative species at this location, particularly Sahara mustard and
veldt grass (Meyer in litt. 2010b).
(2) The Burton Ranch Specific Plan site (Burton Ranch) is located
south of the Encina Management Unit of the Reserve. The project was
approved in 2006 (City of Lompoc 2012) and totals 149 ac (60 ha).
Approximately 83 ac (34 ha) of Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat
would be removed (SAIC 2005a, p. 175). Vandenberg monkeyflower has not
been observed at this site, although the habitat contains many species
commonly associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower (SAIC 2005a, p. 174),
and veldt grass is present within the project site. Ground disturbance
expected as a result of this approved project would remove native
vegetation and may create open areas where veldt grass could invade
(see Factor A--Invasive Nonnnative Species below).
A 100-ft (30-m) buffer at the northern boundary of the project site
and 8 ac (3 ha) of onsite open space were proposed as part of the
Burton Ranch project (SAIC 2005a). Preserving chaparral may reduce the
potential of nonnative plants to invade the intact Burton Mesa
chaparral in the Reserve directly to the north of this project site.
Additionally, the project proponent completed a conservation agreement
with the Land Trust for Santa Barbara County (Land Trust) to mitigate
for the removal of native vegetation (Feeney in litt. 2012). The
conservation area is known as the Burton Ranch Chaparral Preserve and
encompasses 95 ac (38 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral near Vandenberg
Village.
(3) Allan Hancock College proposed to develop a public safety
complex adjacent to their existing facilities and south of the Davis
Creek corridor (Allan Hancock College 2009, p. 28). The project site
would remove approximately 59 ac (16 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral
(Allan Hancock College 2009, pp. 134-135). Vandenberg monkeyflower has
not been observed within this project site, although a few individuals
were observed in 2009 within the chaparral vegetation (Allan Hancock
College 2009, p. 113). Therefore, ground disturbance would remove
suitable Burton Mesa chaparral and may create open areas for veldt
grass to invade. As part of this project, Allan Hancock College
proposed to preserve approximately 65 ac (26 ha) of Burton Mesa
chaparral near the Davis Creek drainage that is contiguous with the
northern portion of the project site (Allan Hancock College 2009, pp.
9, 135). Preserving chaparral in this area may reduce the potential of
nonnative plants to invade the intact Burton Mesa chaparral in the
Reserve to the north of this project site.
In summary, the majority of development on Vandenberg AFB and the
residential communities of Vandenberg Village, Mission Hills, and Mesa
Oaks, and the existing infrastructure at La Purisima Mission SHP have
existed for decades. Most of Burton Mesa is either State or Federal
land on which future development is unlikely; therefore, most of the
remaining habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower would not be directly
impacted by future development. However, three recent private
developments on the periphery of the State or Federal land either have
resulted in or will result in the direct loss of Burton Mesa chaparral.
Development within or adjacent to suitable chaparral habitat increases
the likelihood of introducing invasive, nonnative species to spread,
which is the most significant threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower (see
Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants). Available conservation measures
to minimize the threat of development are discussed below, see Factor
A--Conservation Measures Undertaken.
Utility and Pipeline Maintenance
Utility and pipeline structures occur within the Reserve on Burton
Mesa. These existing facilities or structures at times require
maintenance to ensure proper operation. As a result, vehicles and foot
traffic could occur at or adjacent to these structures and potentially
result in trampling of habitat and other soil surface disturbance,
which in turn could result in ground disturbance that removes Burton
Mesa chaparral and creates open areas in the vegetation that act as
pathways for nonnative plants to expand or invade.
Plains Exploration and Production Company (PXP) owns an oil
processing plant surrounded by the La Purisima Management Unit of the
Reserve (see Land Ownership section above), and requires access to
their operation across Reserve lands north of the La Purisima
[[Page 64851]]
and Santa Lucia Management Units. Eighteen separate easements and 5
connector easements are used to maintain, repair, replace, and install
roads and access power lines, utility lines, and pipelines (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, p. 12). These easements are generally 50 ft (15 m) wide and
vary in length. Additionally, PXP operates a triplet pipeline that is
located within the 100-ft- (30-m-) wide fuel break between the
Vandenberg AFB boundary and the western edge of the Reserve. Plains
Exploration & Production routinely conducts maintenance of this
pipeline that includes excavating trenches alongside the pipeline to
perform the necessary inspections and repairs. The Oak Canyon
occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower on Vandenberg AFB is partially
located within the pipeline's footprint. No monkeyflower individuals
have been observed in Oak Canyon recently, and veldt grass has filled
almost every opening in the scrub in Oak Canyon (Rutherford in litt.
2012) (see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Species). The Santa Lucia
Canyon occurrence is adjacent to, but not within the pipeline corridor.
Actions within PXP's pipeline footprint may result in ground
disturbances that create openings for nonnative plants to invade and
outcompete native vegetation. However, there is no indication that
maintenance of PXP's pipeline in this area has affected Vandenberg
monkeyflower or its habitat.
The Reserve contains a limited number of existing structures, most
of which are remnants of previous land uses. Local land use agencies
and public works agencies retain utilities and pipelines, and easements
for access; routine maintenance of the utilities is conducted as
needed. The Vandenberg Village Community Services District (VVCSD) has
several structures (including water tanks, a water processing plant,
wells, and water lines and sewer lines) located within the Reserve
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower
at Volans Avenue is adjacent to a sewer line easement held by the
VVCSD. A portion of the Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrence located at
Davis Creek is within a water line easement, also held by the VVCSD.
There is no indication that maintenance of VVCSD infrastructure has
affected Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat at either of these
locations.
The VVCSD filed a request with the State Lands Commission in May
2010 to acquire 27 ac (11 ha) of land within the Reserve east of their
existing water tanks for the construction of a replacement water well
(VVCSD 2010). The 27-ac (11-ha) site is within the Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve and is currently leased to the CDFW. Approximately
180 Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals (see the Davis Creek occurrence
discussion under the Occurrences Located on Burton Mesa Ecological
Reserve section above) were observed in 2010 within the 27-ac (11-ha)
parcel of land where the VVCSD proposes to construct wells in the
future. Therefore, if development occurs at this parcel, habitat
associated with approximately 25 percent of the known individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower that were observed in 2010 within the Davis
Creek occurrence could be impacted (Meyer in litt. 2010a) (see Factor
E--Utility and Pipeline Maintenance section below). Additionally,
removing vegetation would create open space for nonnative plants to
invade this area.
In summary, there is no indication that ongoing maintenance
activities of existing pipelines and utilities have directly impacted
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. However, utility maintenance actions
could result in ground disturbance that removes Burton Mesa chaparral,
creating open areas in the vegetation that act as pathways for
nonnative plants to invade.
Invasive, Nonnative Species
Invasive, nonnative plants occur throughout Burton Mesa and
represent the greatest threat to the remaining individuals of, and
suitable habitat for, Vandenberg monkeyflower. Invasive, nonnative
plants occur across Vandenberg monkeyflower's range, including within
and adjacent to occupied habitat at all nine extant locations, as well
as at the potentially extirpated location (Lower Santa Lucia Canyon).
The presence of invasive, nonnative plants can alter all components of
an ecosystem, from directly altering habitat and displacing individuals
(the latter of which is described under Factor E), to negatively
affecting the abundance and diversity of small mammals and insects that
disperse seeds or pollinate the native vegetation.
Disturbance is one of the primary factors that promote invasion of
nonnative species (Rejmanek 1996; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992; Hobbs
and Huenneke 1992; Brooks et al. 2004; Keeley et al. 2005). Broad
disturbances such as urban development, and disturbances along
corridors, such as roadsides and trails, provide opportunities for
nonnative plants to invade and gain a foothold in Burton Mesa (Keil and
Holland 1998, p. 23). The primary fragmenting (disturbance) event can
be the construction of a road, with or without associated housing
development; later the habitat remnants are subdivided by additional
development, or trails and smaller disturbances that occur within the
habitat remnants (Soule et al. 1992, p. 43). It is well known that
roadside edges tend to be highly invaded habitats (Gelbard and Belnap
2003, p. 422). Paved roads tend to have larger verges and more adjacent
invasive plants present than unpaved roads because of the ongoing
maintenance and improvements of paved roads (Gelbard and Belnap 2003,
pp. 422-430). Additionally, wheeled vehicles effectively disperse seed
and seed-bearing plant parts along travel routes and trails, helping to
spread invasive, nonnative plants (Gelbard and Belnap 2003; Gevirtz et
al. 2005, p. 225). Several native mammals also disperse seeds of
nonnative plants (D'Antonio 1990, pp. 697-698), including deer
(Odocoileus spp.) and rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.), which effectively
disperse the seeds in feces (Odion et al. 1992, pp. 1, 27).
Furthermore, the prevailing onshore winds contribute to the rapid
spread of nonnative plants across Burton Mesa.
The expansion of nonnative plants represents a substantial problem
as it displaces native vegetation on Burton Mesa. Keil and Holland
(1998, p. 27) documented 220 nonnative plant species on Vandenberg AFB,
the majority of which are native to the Mediterranean region and a
smaller number native to Eurasia, South America, Australia, South
Africa, or other regions. A total of 124 nonnative plant species were
observed on the Reserve, 17 of which are recognized as high concern
because of their severe ecological impacts on native ecosystems
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 181). Ferren et al. (1984, p. 75) documented
90 species of nonnative plants in La Purisima Mission SHP, comprising
approximately 25 percent of the total flora at the park. The list of
species observed by Ferren et al. (1984) is not comprehensive but
includes nearly all species occurring on unplowed uplands of Burton
Mesa where Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat occurs (Hickson 1987, p.
21).
Several invasive plant species that are present within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat and of particular concern with regard to altering
habitat of Vandenberg monkeyflower on Burton Mesa include veldt grass,
pampas grass, bromes, Sahara mustard, Centaurea solstitialis (star
thistle), iceplant, Carduus pycnocephalus (Italian thistle), and
Cirsium vulgare (bull thistle). The first five of these species have a
ranking of ``A'' by the California Invasive Plants
[[Page 64852]]
Council (Cal-IPC), denoting the highest level of impact on native
habitats; iceplant, Italian thistle, and bull thistle have a ranking of
``B'', denoting a moderate level of impact on native habitats (Cal-IPC
2012).
The following paragraphs include a brief discussion of four
prolific invasive, nonnative plants (veldt grass, iceplant, Sahara
mustard, and pampas grass) that are having the greatest impact to
Vandenberg monkeyflower occupied and suitable habitat across its range.
We describe general biological impacts these four invasive plants have
on native vegetation, including known impacts to Burton Mesa chaparral,
and thus, suitable habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower. We then discuss
the specific presence and known impacts of these invasive plants on
Burton Mesa chaparral at each of the nine extant Vandenberg
monkeyflower locations and one potentially extirpated location. We
describe the biological impacts using the best available information,
which includes personal observations of many scientists who are local
experts concerning Burton Mesa or Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat. Available conservation measures to minimize the threat of
invasive, nonnative plants are discussed below under Factor A--
Conservation Measures Undertaken.
(1) Veldt Grass. Veldt grass may be the most pervasive of the
nonnative species in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat because it can
produce an abundance of seeds year-round, and grows under a wide
variety of light, temperature, moisture, and substrate conditions (Keil
and Holland 1998, p. 23; The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 2005, pp. 6-7).
Additionally, it is extremely difficult to eradicate once established.
Note that, while several species of veldt grass occur in this region,
the most prevalent, and the one we are focusing on in this rule, is
South African perennial veldt grass. As a sprawling perennial, veldt
grass substantially changes the plant community composition in invaded
habitats, altering fire potential by buildup of dense thatch during the
summer months (see Factor A--Anthropogenic Fire), and increasing the
rate of organic matter accumulation (TNC 2005, p. 6; Cal-IPC 2012).
Veldt grass tends to crowd out native species and prevents the
reestablishment of native herbs and shrubs; larger shrubs are not
replaced after they die (Keil and Holland 1998, p. 23; Bossard et al.
2000 pp. 164-170; Earth Tech et al. 1996, p. 314). Veldt grass also
readily spreads into roadsides and from there into openings between
shrubs (Bossard et al. 2000, p. 168). In the absence of veldt grass,
open areas that occur in native vegetative communities on the mesa tend
to be occupied by a variety of native annual herbs and short-lived
perennials (Earth Tech et al. 1996, p. 314). These open areas may
provide habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Veldt grass is spreading rapidly across Vandenberg AFB and the
Burton Mesa and represents a significant problem (Gevirtz et at. 2007,
p. 181). It was established on Vandenberg AFB in the late 1950s to
stabilize sand dunes in the Purisima Point area approximately 5 mi (8
km) south of San Antonio Terrace (Peters and Sciandrone 1964, pp. 98,
101); the San Antonio Terrace dune sheet overlies the western edges of
Burton Mesa and is upwind of Burton Mesa (Hunt 1993, p. 8). In a study
of the vegetation of San Antonio Terrace, photos from 1979 and the
early 1990s were compared, noting that veldt grass had expanded from a
few localized areas (generally around existing roads and buildings) to
become a dominant component of the vegetation and had expanded to new
areas (Earth Tech et al. 1996). Veldt grass initially invades roadway
corridors or other disturbed areas, and then spreads into the more open
herbaceous or unvegetated areas between shrubs (Earth Tech et al. 1996,
p. 314). Grasses like veldt grass that are prolific seeders can build
up a large seed bank in the soil, increasing their capacity to respond
to disturbances; however, D'Antonio and Vitousek (1992, p. 66) noted
that veldt grass is also a threat in the absence of habitat disturbance
because it can invade undisturbed coastal habitats in California. Sandy
habitats appear to be particularly susceptible to invasion in
California (TNC 2005, p. 6). Human (1990, p. 34) identified veldt grass
as the most devastating of the nonnative invaders on San Antonio
Terrace (which is upwind of Burton Mesa and thus Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat) because it forms solid stands and excludes native
plant species.
Currently, veldt grass occurs in more areas on Vandenberg AFB than
where it was initially introduced. On Vandenberg AFB, veldt grass
occurs both within and adjacent to occupied Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat and is expanding at Santa Lucia, Lake, and Pine Canyons, and
has become the dominant vegetation cover in portions of lower Oak
Canyon. Additionally, veldt grass is present and expanding at certain
locations on the Reserve, including at the Volans Avenue, Clubhouse
Estates, and Davis Creek occurrences. Veldt grass is also present at La
Purisima Mission SHP. See section below entitled Review of Invasive,
Nonnative Species Present by Occurrence regarding the presence and
known impacts of veldt grass at each of the Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurrences.
(2) Iceplant. Iceplant is a succulent, mat-forming perennial
(D'Antonio 1990, p. 694). A single iceplant individual can form dense,
circular mats up to 33 ft (10 m) in diameter and approximately 20 in
(40 cm) thick (D'Antonio and Mahall 1991, p. 886). It overcrowds native
plants and has an exceptional ability to spread to sandy soils along
the coast (Jacks et al. 1984, p. 12; Zedler and Scheid 1988, p. 196).
The reproductive potential of iceplant is very high (Schmalzer and
Hinkle 1987, p. 18). It propagates by seed and vegetatively; even small
stem fragments can regenerate into a new plant (Cal-IPC 2012). Iceplant
is a successful invader because seeds are dispersed before or during
the time of year when they are most likely to germinate, which allows
little time for post-dispersal predation to occur; and the seeds are
dispersed by a diversity of mammals (D'Antonio 1990, p. 700).
Additionally, Vivrette and Muller (1977, pp. 315-317) showed that the
salt leached from iceplant individuals was the limiting factor in the
growth and establishment of native grassland species. Salt retained in
aerial parts of dried iceplant individuals is transported into the soil
through leaching by fog in the summer and rain in the fall (Vivrette
and Muller 1977, pp. 311, 316; Kloot 1983, pp. 304-305). On sandy
soils, salt deposited in the summer is washed through the soil and
replaced by the remaining lower levels of salt leaching out of the
plant with the first rains in the fall (Vivrette and Muller 1977, p.
316).
Iceplant is an invasive species of great concern on Vandenberg AFB
(Keil and Holland 1998, p. 22). It was originally planted on Base along
roads and about buildings to prevent wind erosion (Human 1990, pp. 32,
42). By the mid-1990s, iceplant occupied hundreds of acres on the San
Antonio Terrace, having spread into adjacent habitats from plantings
along roadsides, the Southern Pacific Railroad tracks, and around
missile testing facilities (Earth Tech 1996, p. 264). It is especially
prevalent west of the main developed area on Vandenberg AFB because
there is extensive iceplant in the adjacent dune habitat and former
chaparral habitat, and because of extensive past mechanical disturbance
(i.e., land disturbed by mechanical equipment) within the chaparral
west of the primary developed area (Odion et al. 1992, p. 13).
Iceplant recruits abundantly within openings in the chaparral
canopy such
[[Page 64853]]
as those created by burning or mechanical disturbance (Odion et al.
1992, p. 1), and there is no area of Burton Mesa chaparral on Base
where iceplant will not invade (Odion et al. 1992, p. 13). In one
instance after a prescribed burn, iceplant was discovered in the burned
plot after the fire, which was unexpected because succulent plants
(such as iceplant) are not known to have the capacity to recover
rapidly from fire (Jacks et al. 1984, pp. 11-12). Iceplant was not
known to occur in the burn plot prior to fire; however, within 3 years
of the prescribed burn, iceplant was the second most prevalent post-
fire perennial plant observed (Zedler and Schied 1988, p. 198). Because
iceplant distribution is extensive on Vandenberg AFB (Air Force 2011a)
and is common within most chaparral on the Base (Odion et al. 1992, p.
13), little effort has been made to map individuals of iceplant that
are mixed within many habitats on the Base, including Burton Mesa
chaparral.
Iceplant has also been observed in the Reserve (Junak 2011; Meyer
2012, pers. comm.) and at La Purisima Mission SHP (Gevirtz et al. 2005,
Appendix 5), although it is not as common as it is on Vandenberg AFB.
Please see the Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present by
Occurrence section below regarding the presence and known impacts of
iceplant at each of the Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences.
(3) Sahara Mustard. Dense stands of Sahara mustard have the
potential to dominate native ecosystems, especially in dry sandy soils
(County of Santa Barbara Agricultural Commissioner's Office (Santa
Barbara Ag. Comm.) 2012). Sahara mustard is especially common in areas
with wind-blown sand deposits and in disturbed sites, such as
roadsides. Additionally, it is invading nonnative annual grassland and
coastal sage scrub on the coastal slope of southern California and is
well-established in all counties of southern California (Cal-IPC 2012).
In coastal southern California, it locally dominates nonnative
grasslands in dry, open sites, especially disturbed areas, and can
expand over larger areas replacing other nonnative annuals during
drought conditions (Cal-IPC 2012). Its early-season growth and large
size allow it to monopolize early-season moisture, expand its canopy,
and set seed before other plants have emerged (Cal-IPC 2012; Santa
Barbara Ag. Comm. 2012; Barrows et al. 2009).
Barrows et al. (2009, pp. 677-683) conducted a study in the
Coachella Valley (Imperial County, California) from 2002 to 2008, to
determine whether native annual plants were negatively affected by the
presence of Sahara mustard by comparing plots with Sahara mustard to
plots where Sahara mustard had been manually removed. Sahara mustard
formed a canopy 1 to 3 ft (0.3 to 1.0 m) from the ground and native
annuals under the canopy were often weakened by loss of sunlight,
resulting in natives that grew taller; however, the increased plant
height was at the expense of producing branches, flowers, and fruits
(Barrows et al. 2009, p. 683). Flower and seed production of annuals
growing under the Sahara mustard canopy decreased 80 to 90 percent
compared to annuals free from mustard competition (Barrows et al. 2009,
p. 683). Additionally, species richness, density, and total percent
cover of natives were higher in the plots where Sahara mustard was
removed (Barrows et al. 2009, p. 679). The strongest effect was on the
percent cover of natives, with nearly double the native annual plant
cover on plots where Sahara mustard had been manually removed.
Sahara mustard was collected at three locations on Vandenberg AFB
in the late 1990s and is likely to be more common (Keil in litt. 2013).
One of these collections was from Lake Canyon (which is the location
for one of the nine extant Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences). A
second collection of Sahara mustard was located on North Base, upwind
of Burton Mesa and thus Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. The third
collection was from near Point Arguello on South Base and not near or
upwind of Burton Mesa.
More recently, Sahara mustard has been observed on Department of
Justice lands at the Lompoc Penitentiary that is near the southern
terminus of Santa Lucia Canyon Road and Oak Canyon, and borders the
southwestern corner of the Vandenberg Management Unit of the Reserve
(Meyer in litt. 2012a; Lum in litt. 2012c). It is spreading rapidly
across the Reserve, notably in the La Purisima, Santa Lucia,
Vandenberg, and Encina Management Units (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 241,
Junak 2011; Meyer in litt. 2012a). Specifically, Sahara mustard is
known to occur adjacent to the Clubhouse Estates occurrence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower (Meyer in litt. 2012a). Additionally, a small-
scale infestation occurs by the eastern edge of La Purisima Mission SHP
(California State Parks 2011, p. 4; Santa Barbara Ag. Comm. 2012). See
the section below titled Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present
by Occurrence regarding the presence and known impacts of Sahara
mustard at each of the Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences.
(4) Pampas Grass. The invasion of pampas grass has altered the
landscape of Burton Mesa because it has the ability to convert
shrubland into nonnative perennial grassland and prevent native plants
from reestablishing (Permberton 1985, p. 4; Lambrinos 2000, pp. 224-
225). Once pampas grass is established, it is extremely difficult to
eradicate (McClintock 1985, p. 5). Individual plants already present in
the landscape may greatly accelerate the conversion of native
vegetation into pampas grass-dominated grasslands (Lambrinos 2002, p.
527). Therefore, the ability of pampas grass to persist for long
periods of time poses a serious threat to the native diversity of this
ecosystem (Lambrinos 2000, p. 217). Large individuals can produce
billions of seeds over the course of their reproductive lives
(Lambrinos 2000, p. 225), and because the grass seeds are wind-
dispersed (Keil and Holland 1998, p. 23), pampas grass is able to
spread into adjacent vegetation, particularly chaparral, in which there
are openings and bare soil (Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987, pp. 30-31).
Additionally, it creates a fire hazard with excessive buildup of dry
leaves, leaf bases, and flowering stalks (Cal-IPC 2012) (see Factor A--
Anthropogenic Fire).
Lambrinos (2000, p. 225) studied the effects of pampas grass
invasion at Vandenberg AFB. Plots with pampas grass were compared to
adjacent plots of pristine maritime chaparral. The pampas grass-invaded
portions of the plots were associated with adjacent, relatively small-
scale disturbances, such as dirt roads, water runoff channels, and a
paved road. The only disturbance within the plots was narrow trails
used by mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) that crossed both invaded and
noninvaded plots (Lambrinos 2000, pp. 219, 225). The cover of dead
shrubs was significantly greater in invaded plots, indicating shrub
cover was higher in the invaded plots at the time of invasion.
Additionally, shrub recruitment into stands of pampas grass was low,
and pampas grass individuals exhibited high recruitment rates in both
invaded and pristine maritime chaparral stands (Lambrinos 2000, p.
225).
Populations of pampas grass have been well-established on
Vandenberg AFB since 1975 (Coulombe and Cooper 1976, pp. 93-94). It was
introduced along the railroad tracks (Odion et al. 1992, p. 14), and
major populations occur around the airfield extending from the railroad
tracks south along both sides of the runway and in adjacent areas
(Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987, p. 30; Keil and Holland 1998, p. 23).
Nearly all mechanically disturbed areas
[[Page 64854]]
on Base downwind of established pampas grass are now invaded (Odion et
al. 1992, p. 14). From the ruderal populations, pampas grass has also
expanded into the surrounding, relatively undisturbed chaparral where
there are openings and bare soil (Lambrinos 2000, p. 218; Schmalzer and
Hinkle 1987, pp. 30-31). Therefore, over extended periods of time
pampas grass can reduce native plant diversity, even in the absence of
large-scale disturbances (Lambrinos 2000, p. 227). The most affected
habitat is Burton Mesa chaparral because the natural integrity of the
community was lost due to previous disturbances (Keil and Holland 1998,
p. 23; Lambrinos 2002, p. 519). Thus, any activities that remove native
vegetation and leave bare soil create an opportunity for pampas grass
invasion (Schmalzer and Hinkle 1987, pp. 30-31).
Pampas grass has also been observed in the Reserve (Junak 2011) and
at La Purisima Mission SHP (Gevirtz et al. 2005, Appendix 5), although
it is not as widespread as it is on Vandenberg AFB. See the section
below titled Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present by
Occurrence regarding the presence and known impacts of pampas grass at
each of the Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences.
Review of Invasive, Nonnative Species Present by Occurrence
In the paragraphs below we discuss the presence of invasive plants
that occur within or adjacent to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat at each of the nine extant locations and one potentially
extirpated location. The Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia Canyon locations
are grouped based on the information available.
(1) Vandenberg AFB--Oak Canyon. Oak Canyon is a location where
Vandenberg monkeyflower was reported as common in the 1980s (see
Current Locations--Occurrences Located on Vandenberg AFB section for
additional site-specific information). In 2004, a 12-ac (4.86-ha) fire
burned the northeast-facing slope of lower Oak Canyon (Lum in litt.
2012e); a detailed description of the vegetation at this site prior to
the fire is not available. Since then, however, veldt grass has filled
almost every opening in the scrub in Oak Canyon and in 2012, it was the
dominant species in this area (Rutherford in litt. 2012). Four
individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower were found in 2006 (VFWO 2013),
and none were observed in 2010 or 2012 (Air Force 2012, p. 1; Lum in
litt. 2012b; Rutherford in litt. 2012).
(2), (3), and (4) Vandenberg AFB--Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia
Canyons. Veldt grass occurs within and near each of the occurrences of
Vandenberg monkeyflower at Pine, Lake, and Santa Lucia Canyons, and the
area occupied by veldt grass is expanding at each site (SAIC 2012, p.
5; Air Force 2012). Additionally, the Highway Incident wildfire in 2009
(see Factor A--Anthropogenic Fire) that burned in upper Lake Canyon
fostered expansion of invasive, nonnative plants already present in the
area, such as veldt grass, pampas grass, iceplant, and bull thistle
(Air Force 2009b, Appendix E).
(5) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve--Volans Avenue. Veldt grass and
iceplant occur within Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat and near
the known occurrences at this location, and both species are likely
directly affecting the availability of sandy openings at this location
(Meyer in litt. 2013). The last time Vandenberg monkeyflower was
observed at this location was in 2007 (Meyer in litt. 2007), although
we still consider this occurrence extant.
(6) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve--Clubhouse Estates. As of the
most recent survey in 2009, the Clubhouse Estates occurrence supported
350-400 Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals (McGowen in litt. 2009).
Since a portion of the vegetation was cleared from this project site in
2006 and later graded in 2007, veldt grass and Sahara mustard have
expanded within Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat and near
individual plants (Meyer in litt. 2010b) (see also Current Locations--
Occurrences Located on Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve; and Factor A--
Development sections above). In particular, veldt grass has moved into
the Clubhouse Estates location and is expanding into undisturbed areas
where veldt grass did not previously occur (Meyer in litt. 2010b).
Prior to the 2006 ground disturbance, iceplant and pampas grass were
present on the project site (SAIC 2005b, pp. 13-14). Iceplant typically
occurred in scattered patches adjacent to areas disturbed by roadways
and existing infrastructure (SAIC 2005b, pp. 13-14; LFR, Inc. 2006, p.
23), and pampas grass occurred throughout the project site, especially
in moister places adjacent to wetlands, along both branches of Davis
Creek that run through the site, and along roadways (SAIC 2005b, pp.
13-14; LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 23). Following the ground disturbance, veldt
grass, pampas grass, and iceplant continue to expand in the undisturbed
parcel that is designated as open space as part of the development
project. It was previously controlled around 2008, but the required 3
years of weeding (LFR, Inc 2006, pp. 48-50, 75 (Table 10)) have not
occurred (Meyer in litt. 2013).
(7) Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve--Davis Creek. Veldt grass and
iceplant have been observed within sandy openings at the Davis Creek
occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower. The CDFW observed veldt grass
within the southern portion of the area occupied by Vandenberg
monkeyflower in addition to the area approximately 100 ft (30 m) to the
north of the plants (Meyer 2012, pers. comm.). Additionally, patches of
iceplant were observed at the northern portion of the Davis Creek
occurrence (Meyer 2012, pers. comm.).
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve--Potentially Extirpated Occurrence
at Lower Santa Lucia Canyon. An historical observation of Vandenberg
monkeyflower was made in 1985 (Hickson in litt. 2007). However, this
species has not been recently observed at this location and is
considered potentially extirpated (see Figure 2 and Table 1) because it
has been approximately 30 years since individuals were observed (with
little survey effort between 1985 and 2011); suitable habitat remains
but it is overcrowded with invasive, nonnative plants. Currently, veldt
grass is dominant within the sandy openings in the Burton Mesa
chaparral, and herbs commonly associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower
are absent (Meyer in litt. 2012c). Sahara mustard is expanding into the
Vandenberg Management Unit at the southwestern corner of the Reserve
from the adjacent Lompoc Penitentiary (Meyer in litt. 2012a).
(8) and (9) La Purisima Mission State Historic Park--La Purisima
Mission SHP East and West. Veldt grass occurs at both the western and
eastern occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower in the park.
Specifically, veldt grass is encroaching into intact Burton Mesa
chaparral and into open sandy areas where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows
(Ballard 2006; California State Parks 2011, p. 4).
Summary--Invasive, Nonnative Species
Invasive, nonnative plants occur and are expanding throughout the
Burton Mesa. More specifically, at least one of the four most
problematic invasive plants occurs within or adjacent to suitable
habitat at each of the nine extant occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower and at one potentially extirpated location. Invasive
plants have demonstrated the ability to reduce the diversity of native
vegetation and convert the native shrublands into nonnative-dominated
vegetation. In some areas, particularly on Vandenberg
[[Page 64855]]
AFB, veldt grass, iceplant, and pampas grass when first introduced were
only minor components of the vegetation; today, these nonnatives are
dominant components of the vegetation at the locations where they were
introduced, and they have expanded to new areas. The expansion of
invasive, nonnative plants is also prevalent on the Reserve and at La
Purisima Mission SHP. Native shrub recruitment and growth of native
annuals into open areas is substantially decreased where these
invasive, nonnative plants become established. Thus, it is likely that
invasive, nonnative plants will become more dominant where they already
occur and will continue to expand to new areas due to the human
activities on Burton Mesa, the competitive fitness of these invasive
plants, the direction of the prevailing wind, and the potential for
small- and large-scale disturbances (see Factor A--Development and
Anthropogenic Fire), all of which could create open areas that promote
invasive, nonnative species invasion and expansion.
With regard to site-specific impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat, veldt grass has been observed occurring within suitable
habitat at each of the nine extant occurrences and at one potentially
extirpated location. Recent observations of the habitat at all nine
extant occurrences indicate that veldt grass is expanding and becoming
dominant in the sandy openings where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows.
Because veldt grass will outcompete native vegetation (including
overcrowding the sandy openings where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows)
and is very difficult to eradicate once it is established, the presence
and expansion of veldt grass within known occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower is a continuous threat because it reduces the amount and
quality of this species' habitat. We also discussed above three other
invasive, nonnative species (iceplant, Sahara mustard, and pampas
grass) that have substantial impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat. These species, along with numerous other nonnative plant
species, are present throughout Burton Mesa and at all extant
occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Similar to veldt grass, the
other invasive, nonnative plants reduce the amount and quality of
habitat for Vandenberg monkeyflower by outcompeting Burton Mesa
chaparral vegetation and decreasing the amount and availability of the
sandy openings where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows. Nevertheless, no
invasive plant is as prevalent and represents as much of a threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat as veldt grass.
Anthropogenic Fire
The disturbance to maritime chaparral that anthropogenic fires
cause may exceed the tolerance thresholds (ability to tolerate
naturally occurring fire regimes and regenerate post-fire) of many
shrub species, resulting in an open canopy, the demise of shrublands,
and persistence of nonnative plants (Haidinger and Keeley 1993, pp.
143-147). The common pattern after chaparral fires is for native and
nonnative annual herbs to dominate for the first year and then
gradually decline as the cover of shrub and subshrubs increases (Zedler
et al. 1983, p. 816). A high cover of annual and perennial herbs the
first few years following the fire decreases as the shrub canopy
closes, and there is little herbaceous cover once the canopy closes,
although senescence (aging) in some shrubs may allow the recruitment of
opportunistic herb or shrub species into gaps in the chaparral (Hickson
1987, p. 5). Patterns of post-fire vegetation vary depending on
chaparral habitat composition, fire timing and intensity, and the
physical attributes and disturbance history of the site (Davis et al.
1988, p. 169).
At historical fire frequencies, chaparral species are generally
resilient to fire because they are well known to regenerate from either
resprouting of perennial root crowns or germination of seeds in the
soil when heated or exposed to smoke (obligate and sprouter seeders)
(Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31). However, increased fire frequencies in
chaparral have led to the loss of native species that rely on seed
regeneration because there is insufficient time between fires for shrub
species to reach reproductive age and replenish the soil seed bank
(Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31). Zedler et al. (1983, pp. 815-816) noted
that high fire frequency has devastating impacts on shrub species that
require a period of recovery before being resilient to further
disturbance. On the other hand, long-term absence of fire may lead to a
gradual transition from chaparral to oak woodland (Van Dyke et al.
2001, p. 2), although this transition is also dependent upon soil
differences (Davis et al. 1988, pp.187-188). Given sufficient time
without fire, successional changes in shrublands may result in a closed
canopy that is capable of excluding most nonnative species (Keeley et
al. 2005, p. 2110).
The long-term fire history for Santa Barbara County indicates that
large fires (more than 49,400 ac (20,000 ha) and typically driven by
Santa Ana wind conditions) are part of the historical fire regime in
this region. The average time between these large fires has remained
relatively consistent over the last 500 years, regardless of changes in
land use, from the Chumash who purposely set fires along the coast
(1425-1770), to Spanish and American settlers (1770-1900) who practiced
fire suppression but with little enforcement, to the more recent period
(1900-1985) of active fire suppression (Mensing et al. 1999, pp. 301-
304). The average interval between these large fires ranges between 20
and 30 years and is strongly controlled by precipitation patterns, with
fires generally occurring at the end of wet phases and the beginning of
droughts (Mensing et al. 1999, p. 304). The range between large fire
events is 5 to 75 years (Mensing et al. 1999, p. 304).
The historical fire regime on Burton Mesa is unknown (Hickson 1987,
p. 25), but it is likely that naturally occurring fires were less
frequent as compared to inland areas because the mesa is at low
elevation and the few lightning strikes recorded in the region have
been in the distant mountains farther inland (Hickson 1988, p. 20).
Additionally, because fog, cool temperatures, and cool winds blowing
off the ocean are typical, the weather conditions conducive to
naturally occurring fires are rare on Burton Mesa (Hickson 1988, p. 22;
Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 58). Therefore, the natural fire interval for
Burton Mesa, similar to coastal chaparral environments north of the
Transverse Ranges of southern California, may be on the order of 100
years (Greenlee and Langenheim 1990, pp. 242-250; Odion and Tyler 2002,
p. 9; Moritz et al. 1997, p. 1258).
The present fire regime on Burton Mesa is likely anthropogenic
(Davis et al. 1988, p. 185; Davis and Borchert 2006, p. 338),
especially given the historical densities of Native American and
European settlers in coastal areas supporting maritime chaparral (Davis
and Borchert 2006, p. 328; Mensing et al. 1999, p. 301) along with the
related infrastructure that currently exists. Today, human-caused
ignitions are more frequent in maritime chaparral, but wildfires are
quickly suppressed or extinguished at roads and fuel breaks (Davis et
al. 1988, p. 177; Davis and Borchert 2006, p. 338). Additionally,
modern land use has fragmented the Burton Mesa chaparral into isolated
patches (see Habitat section above), so that while fires may be more
frequent now than in the past, fire size is probably reduced and the
average time between fires on certain sites increased (Hickson 1987, p.
20).
[[Page 64856]]
Approximately 34 fires have occurred within or adjacent to Burton
Mesa chaparral since 1940 on Vandenberg AFB, east of the main developed
area, and from San Antonio Creek south to the Santa Ynez River (Lum in
litt. 2012f). Odion et al. 1992 (pp. 12-14) stated that 44 fires have
occurred within or adjacent to chaparral on Burton Mesa; however, this
calculation also included fires that occurred west of the main
developed area on Vandenberg AFB, and, therefore, a larger area than
what the Air Force used. Some of the areas burned more than once
because the perimeter of different fires overlapped (Odion et al. 1992,
p. 12; Lum in litt. 2012f). A portion of the fires were prescribed
burns (Lum in litt. 2012f; Odion et al. 1992, pp. 12-14). In total, at
least 2,500 ac (1,012 ha) have burned on Vandenberg AFB since 1957
(Odion et al. 1992, p. 13). In recent years fires have accidentally
ignited on Vandenberg AFB (see discussion of Highway Incident in
paragraph below).
Twenty-eight wildfires occurred on the Reserve and adjacent La
Purisima Mission SHP in the period 1950-2003; the most recent wildfire
(Harris Grade Fire) occurred in 2000 and was caused by a power line
that may have sparked in high winds (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 60). This
fire consumed 11,000 ac (4,451 ha) and was the largest fire in the area
since 1977 (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 60). All of the fires on the
Reserve and at La Purisima Mission SHP since 1950 have been a result of
human activity (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 60). Based on an analysis of
the fire history, approximately 3,440 ac (1,392 ha) of the 5,186-ac
(2,099-ha) Reserve has not burned since 1938 (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p.
60), indicating an absence of fire for at least 70 years on 66 percent
of the Reserve's property. Similarly, the majority of vegetation at La
Purisima Mission SHP has not been burned since before 1938, and most of
the native habitat in the park is also more than 70 years old (Gevirtz
et al. 2005, p. 77).
Although the fire interval in maritime chaparral is an important
factor in determining species composition, on Burton Mesa, and for
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat specifically, the frequency of fire is
secondary to the primary threat, which is the post-fire expansion of
invasive, nonnative plants. California's chaparral habitats, like
Burton Mesa, are most vulnerable to invasion by nonnative plants in the
first few years after fire because fires open large areas of bare,
nutrient-rich ground and remove toxins from the soil, chaparral
recolonizes much more slowly because of limited seed dispersal, and
some seedlings are poor competitors against nonnative annual species
(Keeley et al. 2003, pp. 1362-1363; Alberts et al. 1993, p. 107; Davis
and Mooney 1985, p. 528).
Because sites favorable for invasion by nonnative plants tend to be
relatively open areas where existing plant cover is minimal (see Factor
A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants), and wildfires occurring on Burton Mesa
create such open areas, fires within Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat
tend to increase the expansion of invasive plants that are already
established. For example, an accidental wildfire (Highway Incident)
occurred in September 2009 on Vandenberg AFB when sparks from a power
line started a wildfire that burned approximately 617 ac (250 ha) (Air
Force 2009b, p. 1) in upper Lake Canyon. The southern boundary of this
wildfire burned to within 0.25 mi (0.4 km) of the known Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurrence down-slope in Lake Canyon. The Burned Area
Emergency Response (BAER) Plan noted that invasive, nonnative species
already present in the area, including veldt grass, pampas grass,
iceplant, and bull thistle, were confirmed or discovered in the burn
area within 2 weeks of the fire (Air Force 2009b, Appendix E). Veldt
grass initially colonizes disturbed areas, such as open areas created
by wildfires, and can become a dominant component of the vegetation and
expand to new areas (see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants). Another
example in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat includes a 12-ac (5-ha) fire
that occurred in Oak Canyon on Vandenberg AFB in 2004; as a result,
veldt grass is the dominant vegetation on a hillside sloping toward the
canyon (Google Earth 2012).
In addition to displacing native vegetation, the presence of
nonnative plants (in particular nonnative grasses) has increased the
supply of readily ignitable fuel and increased the seasonal duration
when fuels are susceptible to ignition, both because of their earlier
seasonal drying compared to shrubs and their high surface-to-volume
ratio (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31). Mediterranean grasses such as
bromes and Avena barbata (slender wild oat) are particularly implicated
since they act as wicks, spreading fast-moving fire into the canopies
of larger shrub vegetation (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 31). Thus, the
abundance of nonnative vegetation initiates a positive feedback cycle
based on increased biomass, changes in the distribution of flammable
biomass, and increased flammability (Lambert et al. 2010, p. 29).
Bromus rubens (red brome) occurs on Burton Mesa and is known to rapidly
colonize disturbed sites with open canopies and exposed bare ground
(Brown and Minnich 1986, pp. 414, 418; Bossard et al. 2000, pp. 72-80).
The prevalence of veldt grass and pampas grass also increases the fire
potential on Burton Mesa (see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants
section).
Fire Prevention and Suppression Activities
The Air Force, CDFW, and California State Parks have developed
wildfire prevention and suppression practices not only to minimize the
potential for wildfire, but also to minimize the impacts to the
biological resources during suppression activities. As part of wildfire
management practices, landowners and agencies may create fuel breaks (a
permanent area of low volume fuel) to limit the spread of wildfire and
to provide access for fire suppression activities (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
p. 261). Merriam et al. (2006, pp. 525-526) observed that nonnative
species represented an increasing proportion of total plant cover on
fuel breaks with fuel-break age, suggesting that nonnative species can
displace native species on fuel breaks, and become increasingly
dominant over time (for example, bromes were four of the five most
observed nonnative plants on fuel breaks (Merriam et al. 2006, p.
519)). Additionally, wildland areas adjacent to fuel breaks were more
likely to be invaded by nonnative species when these areas had been
subject to recurrent fires (Merriam et al. 2006, p. 526).
Fire suppression activities that impact suitable Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat include bulldozed and hand-cut fire lines and the
application of fire retardants. During the Highway Incident wildfire,
the Air Force cut fire lines that resulted in a loss of Burton Mesa
chaparral (Air Force 2009b, p. 28). Additionally, approximately 65,000
gallons (246,052 liters) of fire retardant (which is known to act as a
fertilizer enhancing the growth of nonnative grasses (Avery 2001, pp.
17-18)) were spread over this site (Air Force 2009b, p. 28). Therefore,
by burning the existing vegetation, fire creates open areas where
invasive, nonnative plants can expand. Additionally, fire prevention
and suppression activities (e.g., fire breaks and application of fire
retardant) can exacerbate the resulting post-fire expansion of
nonnative plants by creating open fire lines and if fire retardants add
chemicals to the soil that stimulate growth of nonnative vegetation.
The Air Force, CDFW, and California State Parks are studying the
feasibility
[[Page 64857]]
of a prescribed burning program to restore fire to its natural role in
the environment and help restore the native vegetation of Burton Mesa
(California State Parks 1991, p. 110; Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 258;
California State Parks 2010, p. 3; Air Force 2012, p. 2). However, many
local communities are concerned about the safety of conducting
prescribed burns on wildlands when they occur within or near urban
areas, thus complicating the ability of agencies to carry out such
burns.
In summary, because of the human presence and infrastructure on the
mesa, the frequency of human-caused wildfires is likely greater than
the frequency of the historical fires in the past on Burton Mesa. An
increased fire frequency in Burton Mesa chaparral would tend to favor
the establishment of nonnative vegetation in open areas at the expense
of native vegetation. However, the primary threat to Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat from fire is the post-fire expansion of
invasive, nonnative plants, regardless of the fire frequency. Because
an abundance of nonnative plants already occurs on the mesa and
invasive plants rapidly invade open areas, any fire that occurs within
or adjacent to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat is likely to result in
an increase of invasive, nonnative vegetation. Likewise, fire
suppression activities that include clearing vegetation in fuel breaks
or spreading retardant would increase the likelihood of nonnative
species invading suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat, as well as
enhance the habitat conditions for invasive species expansion.
Additionally, because the presence of invasive, nonnative plants
creates a positive feedback mechanism, the greater the percent cover of
nonnative vegetation, the more likely fires will occur on Burton Mesa.
Based on the information presented in this section, the current threat
from anthropogenic fire and associated fire suppression activities to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat described above is expected to continue
into the future. Available conservation measures to minimize the threat
of anthropogenic wildfire are discussed below (see Factor A--
Conservation Measures Undertaken).
Recreation and Other Human Activities
Recreational activities that occur throughout Burton Mesa include
authorized uses such as hunting, hiking, biking, wildlife observation,
and leashed-dog walking. Additionally, off-road vehicle (ORV) use is
authorized on Vandenberg AFB (Air Force 2011b, p. 6), but it is not
permitted on the Reserve (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70) or La Purisima
Mission SHP (California State Parks 1991, p. 109).
Vandenberg Air Force Base (AFB)
On the west end of Burton Mesa on Vandenberg AFB, recreational
activities include OHV use and other casual-use activities, such as
hunting, picnicking, and horseback riding. There is also an existing
237-ac (96-ha) golf course.
Prior to 1974, Vandenberg AFB was subject to uncontrolled use by
ORVs. In April 1974, efforts to establish a program to control ORV use
was prompted by dune damage and the complaints of recreational users,
along with consideration of soil, water, air, noise, aesthetics,
recreational users, wildlife, vegetation, suitability of other public
lands, archaeological sites, threatened and endangered species, and the
accessibility for users (Air Force 2011b, p. 6). Thus, Vandenberg AFB
environmental staff and the Base's motorcycle club designated an ORV
area (Air Force 2011b, p. 6). Currently, ORV use occurs within a 600-ac
(243-ha) site that is west of the primary developed area on Base and an
additional site referred to as Northstar that is located in the
northeast portion of the Base (Air Force 2011b, p. 6), both of which
are not within Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. The ORVs use existing
trails and roads, and are managed to prevent damage to sensitive areas
such as wetlands and highly erodible soils (Air Force 2011b, p. 6).
Therefore, ORV use on Vandenberg AFB is not within the vicinity of
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences on the Base and is not a direct
threat to this species and its habitat.
The west end of Burton Mesa on Vandenberg AFB (west of the primary
developed area) is heavily disturbed by existing trails and service
roads, which may be used by recreationists. Although vehicles using
these roads and trails (including wheeled vehicles for recreational
activities) likely contribute to the spread of invasive, nonnative
plant species on Burton Mesa (see Invasive, Nonnative Species section
above), no information is available to assess the extent and degree to
which this may be occurring on Vandenberg AFB. Moreover, the best
available information does not indicate that these recreational
activities on the west end of Burton Mesa on Base are a direct threat
to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its habitat.
To the east of the developed area where higher-quality Burton Mesa
chaparral still remains and where Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs on
Base, recreational activities that may impact the habitat of this
species include hunting and picnicking. Hunting occurs over much of the
Base and is subject to restrictions at any time based on human safety
and security concerns, as well as wildlife management goals (Air Force
2011b, p. 7). Lake Canyon Lakes picnic area is within a few hundred
feet of Vandenberg monkeyflower plants that are located in lower Lake
Canyon, but the picnic facilities are located on concrete or asphalt
and thus not in Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. Overall, the best
available information does not indicate that recreational activities on
Base, including hunting and picnicking, are directly impacting
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat. However, these activities pose
an indirect threat to the habitat quality because they contribute to
the spread of nonnative plants within suitable habitat.
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve
There are no formal recreational or public facilities currently
within the Reserve, including no designated parking or restroom
facilities (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 69). Authorized uses include
hiking, wildlife observation, and leashed-dog walking. Wheeled
recreational activities such as OHV use and bicycles are not allowed in
the Reserve (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70). The management plan for the
Reserve identifies approximately 28 mi (45 km) of trails (Gevirtz et
al. 2007, p. 71). The existing trails are a combination of oil and
utility service roads and an informal network of pathways from the
surrounding residential areas (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 69). Impacts to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat from authorized recreational uses are
likely negligible because visitors walk into the Reserve and the CDFW
has posted signs at the most highly used access points to direct
recreational users to low-impact trails so as to reduce disturbances to
the native vegetation.
The Volans Avenue occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower is located
adjacent to Vandenberg Village and a VVCSD pipeline easement that is
used by local residents for hiking, jogging, dog walking, and other
casual recreational activities. Running events have previously occurred
in this area of the Reserve, and the running route was likely in close
vicinity to the Volans Avenue occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower
(Ballard in litt. 2012). Vandenberg monkeyflower was last observed in
2007 at this location (Meyer in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt. 2007),
although habitat is still present. In the other years from 2004 to
2006, and in
[[Page 64858]]
2009, no plants were found (Meyer in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt. 2007;
Meyer in litt. 2009a).
It is unknown whether disturbance created by casual human use has
played a role in the absence of Vandenberg monkeyflower's aboveground
expression at this location since 2007. The best available information
indicates that recreational activities involving casual human use on
the Reserve are having minimal to no direct effect on Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat on Burton Mesa. However, veldt grass, which
produces an abundance of seeds and tends to crowd out native species
and prevent their reestablishment, is likely reducing the amount of
available Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at this location (see the
specific Volans Avenue discussion above under the Review of Invasive,
Nonnative Species Present by Occurrence section). Additionally, because
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat is fragmented by recreational trails,
the introduction of additional invasive, nonnative plants into this
area is likely because spreading of nonnative vegetation is known to
occur through visitors' shoes (Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 225). Therefore,
recreational activities may indirectly affect this species by spreading
invasive, nonnative plants into the habitat (i.e., sandy openings)
where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows.
Unauthorized ORV use has been reported on the western portions of
the Reserve (Santa Lucia Management Unit) from adjacent lands on
Vandenberg AFB. It is likely that the trespass is originating from the
general public (nonmilitary) because public roadways (such as Santa
Lucia Canyon Road) cross Vandenberg AFB lands on this portion of the
Base and the Air Force controls the use of ORVs by military staff on
the Base. As a result of unauthorized use on the Reserve, CDFW
installed a gate in 2009 to control access along Santa Lucia Canyon
Road (Meyer in litt 2009b). Unauthorized ORV activity has also been
reported at another location of the Reserve that supports Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurrences and suitable habitat (i.e., east of, and
adjacent to, the Clubhouse Estates project site) (Meyer in litt 2010c).
Additionally, bicycles are prohibited in Burton Mesa (14 California
Code of Regulations (CCR) 630 (b)(22)(B)). However, unauthorized
mountain biking has been observed in the Reserve within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat (Meyer in litt. 2013). The available information
does not indicate the extent and degree to which ORV and mountain
biking may be directly impacting Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat on the
Reserve. However, wheeled recreational activities likely contribute to
the spread of invasive, nonnative plant species within the Reserve
along the travel routes, some of which occur within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat.
The Santa Barbara County Sheriff and Fire Departments maintain
facilities on a county-owned inholding within the Reserve. They have
been leasing an adjacent 3-ac (1.2-ha) parcel from the State Lands
Commission (SLC) for the last 15 years to maintain their equestrian
training facility, and the use of horses has expanded onto the Reserve.
The lease has since expired, and the SLC is evaluating whether to renew
the lease or modify its terms (Meyer in litt. 2012b). The Santa Barbara
County Sheriff Department desires to keep horses in the stalls behind
the facility; however, horse use is not allowed on Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve (14 CCR Section 630(b)(22(B)), and CDFW wants to
keep the area of impact to a few acres near the stalls (Meyer in litt.
2012b). Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences and suitable habitat do not
occur near this facility and, therefore, no direct impacts to the
habitat would occur.
The Lompoc Valley Flyers Club (Flyers Club) operated a dirt take-
off and landing strip for model airplanes, a race track for model cars,
and several picnic tables in the Vandenberg Management Unit of the
Reserve (just south of California State Highway 1) from 1988 to 2000
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The Flyers Club routinely graded the
landing strip and access road; this surface scar is still evident in
aerial photographs and erosion is a continuing problem at this site
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 63). The activities occurred in Burton Mesa
chaparral but not near known occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower.
However, these activities have reduced suitable habitat for Vandenberg
monkeyflower through removal and degradation of Burton Mesa chaparral
and creation of open areas that allow nonnative plants to establish.
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
La Purisima Mission SHP contains roads and trails authorized for
use by local residents for hiking, dog walking, and horseback riding,
and employs park rangers and staff to maintain the grounds and conduct
patrols. Twelve miles (19 km) of riding and hiking trails wind through
the park, including 3.7 mi (6 km) of historical trails near the mission
and 8.8 mi (14 km) in the surrounding hills (California State Parks
1991, pp. 9, 107). Bicycles are permitted on approximately 5 mi (8 km)
of these trails (which are also designated fire roads), and the
remainder, with a few exceptions, are open to horses (California State
Parks 1991, pp. 9, 107). Vehicle movement and pedestrian and equestrian
use do not directly impact Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at La
Purisima Mission SHP because the roads and trails do not overlap where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs. However, indirect impacts to Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat may occur due to nonnative plant invasions
introduced through visitors' shoes, horse hoofs, vehicle tires, and
tractor treads (Gevirtz et al. 2005, p. 225). The best available
information indicates that recreational activities involving casual
human use at La Purisima Mission SHP are having minimal to no direct
effect on Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat on Burton Mesa.
Summary--Recreation and Other Human Activities
Off-road vehicle use and other casual recreational activities may
contribute to soil disturbance and increase the potential for invasive,
nonnative plants to be introduced and further spread across Burton
Mesa, including into locations where Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
suitable habitat occurs. At this time, the best available information
does not indicate that recreational activities pose a substantial
direct threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat, although these
activities would indirectly affect the habitat by contributing to the
spread of invasive, nonnative plants within the habitat and reducing
the habitat quality. Available conservation measures to minimize the
threat of recreation are discussed below under Factor A--Conservation
Measures Undertaken.
Climate Change
Our analyses under the Act include consideration of ongoing and
projected changes in climate. The terms ``climate'' and ``climate
change'' are defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). The term ``climate'' refers to the mean and variability of
different types of weather conditions over time, with 30 years being a
typical period for such measurements, although shorter or longer
periods also may be used (IPCC 2007a, p. 78). The term ``climate
change'' thus refers to a change in the mean or variability of one or
more measures of climate (for example, temperature or precipitation)
that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer,
whether the change is due to natural variability,
[[Page 64859]]
human activity, or both (IPCC 2007a, p. 78).
Scientific measurements spanning several decades demonstrate that
changes in climate are occurring, and that the rate of change has
increased since the 1950s. Examples include warming of the global
climate system, and substantial increases in precipitation in some
regions of the world and decreases in others (For these and other
examples, see IPCC 2007a, p. 30; and Solomon et al. 2007, pp. 35-54,
82-85). Results of scientific analyses presented by the IPCC show that
most of the observed increase in global average temperature since the
mid-20th century cannot be explained by natural variability in climate,
and is ``very likely'' (defined by the IPCC as 90 percent or higher
probability) due to the observed increase in greenhouse gas (GHG)
concentrations in the atmosphere as a result of human activities,
particularly carbon dioxide emissions from use of fossil fuels (IPCC
2007a, pp. 5-6 and figures SPM.3 and SPM.4; Solomon et al. 2007, pp.
21-35). Further confirmation of the role of GHGs comes from analyses by
Huber and Knutti (2011, p. 4), who concluded that it is extremely
likely that approximately 75 percent of global warming since 1950 has
been caused by human activities.
Scientists use a variety of climate models, which include
consideration of natural processes and variability, as well as various
scenarios of potential levels and timing of GHG emissions, to evaluate
the causes of changes already observed and to project future changes in
temperature and other climate conditions (for example, Meehl et al.
2007, entire; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 11555, 15558; Prinn et al. 2011,
pp. 527, 529). All combinations of models and emissions scenarios yield
very similar projections of increases in the most common measure of
climate change, average global surface temperature (commonly known as
global warming), until about 2030. Although projections of the
magnitude and rate of warming differ after about 2030, the overall
trajectory of all the projections is one of increased global warming
through the end of this century, even for the projections based on
scenarios that assume that GHG emissions will stabilize or decline.
Thus, there is strong scientific support for projections that warming
will continue through the 21st century, and that the magnitude and rate
of change will be influenced substantially by the extent of GHG
emissions (IPCC 2007a, pp. 44-45; Meehl et al. 2007, pp. 760-764, 797-
811; Ganguly et al. 2009, pp. 15555-15558; Prinn et al. 2011, pp. 527,
529). (See IPCC 2007b, p. 8, for a summary of other global projections
of climate-related changes, such as frequency of heat waves and changes
in precipitation. Also see IPCC 2011 (entire) for a summary of
observations and projections of extreme climate events.)
Various changes in climate may have direct or indirect effects on
species. These effects may be positive, neutral, or negative, and they
may change over time, depending on the species and other relevant
considerations, such as interactions of climate with other variables
(for example, habitat fragmentation) (IPCC 2007, pp. 8-14, 18-19).
Identifying likely effects often involves aspects of climate change
vulnerability analysis. Vulnerability refers to the degree to which a
species (or system) is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse
effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes.
Vulnerability is a function of the type, magnitude, and rate of climate
change and variation to which a species is exposed, its sensitivity,
and its adaptive capacity (IPCC 2007a, p. 89; see also Glick et al.
2011, pp. 19-22). No single method for conducting such analyses applies
to all situations (Glick et al. 2011, p. 3). We use our expert judgment
and appropriate analytical approaches to weigh relevant information,
including uncertainty, in our consideration of various aspects of
climate change.
As is the case with all stressors that we assess, even if we
conclude that a species is currently affected or is likely to be
affected in a negative way by one or more climate-related impacts, it
does not necessarily follow that the species meets the definition of an
``endangered species'' or a ``threatened species'' under the Act. If a
species is listed as endangered or threatened, knowledge regarding the
vulnerability of the species to, and known or anticipated impacts from,
climate-associated changes in environmental conditions can be used to
help devise appropriate strategies for its recovery.
Global climate projections are informative and, in some cases, the
only or the best scientific information available for us to use.
However, projected changes in climate and related impacts can vary
substantially across and within different regions of the world (for
example, IPCC 2007a, pp. 8-12). Therefore, we use ``downscaled''
climate projections when they are available and have been developed
through appropriate scientific procedures, because such projections
provide higher resolution information that is more relevant to spatial
scales used for analyses of a given species (see Glick et al. 2011, pp.
58-61, for a discussion of downscaling). With regard to our analysis
for Vandenberg monkeyflower, downscaled climate projections are
available.
Within central-western California (i.e., counties along the
California coast from the San Francisco Bay area south to Santa Barbara
County), regional climate models project a mean annual temperature
increase of 1.6 to 1.9 degrees Celsius ([deg]C) (2.9-3.4 degrees
Fahrenheit ([deg]F)) and a mean diurnal temperature range increase of
0.1 to 0.2 [deg]C (0.2-0.4[emsp14][deg]F) by 2070 (Point Reyes Bird
Observatory (PRBO) Conservation Science 2011, p. 35). The projected
impacts of climate change are warmer winter temperatures, earlier
warming in the spring, and increased summer temperatures (PRBO
Conservation Science 2011, p. 35). Additionally, regional climate
models project a decrease in mean annual rainfall of 2.4 to 7.4 in (6.1
to 18.8 cm) (PRBO Conservation Science 2011, p. 35). The large range of
possible precipitation change (-11 percent to -32 percent) is due to
different model projections and sensitivity. This sensitivity indicates
substantial uncertainty in precipitation projections (PRBO Conservation
Science 2011, p. 35). Other scientific sources (Snyder et al. 2004, pp.
594-595) project similar temperature increases and precipitation
decreases along the central California coast.
Of the three major vegetation types within central-western
California, decreases in cover are projected for chaparral-coastal
scrub habitat (-19 to -43 percent) and blue oak woodland-foothill pine
habitat (-44 to -55 percent), and an increase in cover projected for
grassland habitat (85 to 140 percent) to 2070 (PRBO Conservation
Science 2011, p. 38). Lenihan et al. (2008) also projects decreases in
cover for conifer forests and shrublands, and increases in cover for
grasslands in central-western California by the 2070-2099 period.
Additionally, changes in vegetation communities could also be hastened
by more and larger wildfires, as well as effective wildfire suppression
(PRBO Conservation Science 2011, pp. 37-38) (see Factor A--
Anthropogenic Fire section).
To estimate what changes in rainfall and temperature, if any, would
occur in the Burton Mesa area over the next 50 years, we used both
local weather data and an available projection tool called
ClimateWizard (2012). Temperature and precipitation data have been
recorded in the City of Lompoc, approximately 4 mi (6.4 km) to the
south of Burton Mesa
[[Page 64860]]
Ecological Reserve. Between 1950 and 2006, the average annual
temperature was approximately 58 [deg]F (14 [deg]C); the average annual
precipitation was approximately 15 in (38 cm) (Western Regional Climate
Center 2012). We then used ClimateWizard (2012) to project future
climate conditions and compare to baseline values (the latter of which
is defined as the average temperature or precipitation between 1961 and
1990 (ClimateWizard 2012)). ClimateWizard (2012) projects that rainfall
would decrease an average of 8 to 12 percent from baseline and
temperature would rise approximately 2.5 [deg]F (1.4 [deg]C) by the
2050s. A comparison between the Burton Mesa area and the eastern
portion of Santa Barbara County (for example, 30 mi (48 km) east of the
Burton Mesa area, which is projected to rise approximately 5 [deg]F
(2.8 [deg]C)), indicates that the change in temperature is expected to
be less in the Burton Mesa area. This is likely due to the moderating
influence of ocean temperatures in coastal areas.
In a changing climate, conditions could change in a way that would
allow both native and nonnative plants to invade the habitat where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs. A growing body of literature discusses
the specific mechanisms by which climate change could affect the
abundance, distribution, and long-term viability of plant species, as
well as current habitat configuration over time, including (but not
limited to): Root et al. (2003), Parmesan and Yohe (2003), and Visser
and Both (2005). While studies on response to climate change have not
been conducted for Vandenberg monkeyflower, responses may be similar to
other plant species with a similar life history. Some of the responses
by plants to climate change presented by Root et al. (2003), Parmesan
and Yohe (2003), Visser and Both (2005), and others include the
following:
(1) Drier conditions may result in less suitable habitat, or a
lower germination success and smaller population sizes.
(2) Higher temperatures may inhibit germination, dry out soil, or
affect pollinator services.
(3) The timing of pollinator life cycles may become out-of-sync
with timing of flowering.
(4) A shift in the timing and nature of annual precipitation may
favor expansion in abundance and distribution of nonnative species.
(5) Drier conditions may result in increased fire frequency, making
the ecosystems in which a species currently grows more vulnerable to
threats of nonnative plant invasion.
We recognize that climate change is an important issue with
potential impacts to species and their habitats, including Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Regional climate projections indicate that a warming and
drying trend is likely in central-western California, which would
likely make habitat less favorable for Vandenberg monkeyflower.
However, as stated above, these warming and drying effects may be
moderated by the marine influence. Therefore, climate change may not
affect Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat as quickly or as
extensively as may be projected. We will continue to seek additional
information concerning how climate change may affect the Burton Mesa
area (see Information Received section above).
Conservation Measures Undertaken
The Air Force has an approved Integrated Natural Resources
Management Plan (INRMP) on Vandenberg AFB, and the CDFW and California
State Parks have established natural resources management plans for the
Reserve and La Purisima Mission SHP, respectively. Herein, we discuss
specific conservation measures as they apply to each threat described
above (see Factor A--Development, Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous
Activities, Invasive, Nonnative Plants, Anthropogenic Fire, and
Recreation sections above); however, not all landowners implement
conservation measures that address each threat.
Vandenberg Air Force Base (AFB)
The Air Force developed an INRMP in 2011 (Air Force 2011c) pursuant
to the Sikes Act Improvement Act of 1997 (Sikes Act). The Sikes Act
requires the Department of Defense to develop and implement INRMPs for
military installations in the United States. INRMPs direct the
management and use of the lands on a military installation and are
prepared in cooperation with the Service and State fish and wildlife
agencies to ensure proper consideration of fish, wildlife, and habitat
needs. This Vandenberg AFB INRMP was prepared to provide strategic
direction to ecosystem and natural resources management on Base. The
long-term goal of the INRMP is to integrate all management activities
in a manner that sustains, promotes, and restores the health and
integrity of ecosystems using an adaptive management approach. The
INRMP was designed to: (1) Summarize existing management plans and
natural resources literature pertaining to Vandenberg AFB; (2) identify
and analyze management goals in existing plans; (3) integrate the
management goals and objectives of individual plans; (4) support Base
compliance with applicable regulatory requirements; (5) support the
integration of natural resource stewardship with the Air Force mission;
and (6) provide direction for monitoring strategies. The INRMP includes
a chapter that identifies step-down goals for the management of
threatened and endangered species on Base; however, since Vandenberg
monkeyflower was not a listed species at that time, specific goals for
it were not included. In 2012, the Air Force approved an addendum that
addresses specific goals for Vandenberg monkeyflower (Air Force 2012).
The INRMP and addendum provide for measures that would conserve
Vandenberg monkeyflower, as follows:
(1) Development. The Air Force is not likely to construct new
launch facilities within suitable habitat near human-populated areas,
and the future siting of community facilities is expected to occur in a
manner that capitalizes on existing infrastructure and circulation
systems (Air Force 2009a, p. 32). Thus, no specific conservation
measures have been proposed to minimize the threat of development to
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat on Base.
(2) Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous Activities. Construction
of new facilities is not likely to occur within Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat; however, existing utilities will require periodic maintenance.
No specific conservation measures were proposed in the addendum to the
INRMP (Air Force 2012). The main objective is to avoid any impacts to
habitat, when possible, by either confining the work to existing
disturbed areas or rerouting the work to avoid suitable habitat
completely, and minimize the impact as much as possible (Air Force
2012, p. 2). For Vandenberg monkeyflower, the Air Force would avoid
impacting Burton Mesa chaparral as much as possible if utility
maintenance is required in suitable habitat.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Plants. The INRMP (Air Force 2011a)
includes an Invasive Plant Species Management Plan that identifies the
threat of invasive, nonnative plants on Base, and proposes removal
methods to limit further spread and assist in restoration of habitat
degraded by invasive species. In most cases, the Air Force would
utilize chemical application to manage for invasive plants (Air Force
2011a, p. 43). Although the INRMP identified invasive, nonnative plants
as a threat and calls for their removal, it did not identify which
nonnative species, and
[[Page 64861]]
which areas on Base, were a priority for treatment.
In the 2012 addendum to their INRMP, the Air Force identifies veldt
grass as the most problematic invasive, nonnative plant on Base for
Vandenberg monkeyflower. As part of this addendum, the Air Force also
identified their 10-year funding program, which included more than
$500,000 to treat veldt grass, starting in 2009 and continuing through
2019 (Air Force 2012). While the Air Force does not specify precisely
where, when, or how much veldt grass will be treated or removed in
specific years, they state that a substantial portion of this effort
will focus on areas within the range of Vandenberg monkeyflower (Air
Force 2012, p. 1). Through 2012, the Air Force has chemically treated
approximately 141 acres (57 ha) of invasive, nonnative plants, mostly
treating pampas grass within Burton Mesa chaparral but not near extant
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences (treatment was to benefit
Eriodictyon capitatum (Lompoc yerba santa)). Other invasive, nonnative
plants treated included veldt grass, iceplant, Eucalyptus spp.
(Eucalyptus), and Pinus spp. (Pine)). Only a small proportion of this
chemical removal occurred within Burton Mesa chaparral at two locations
where Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs (Lake and Pine Canyons) (Lum in
litt. 2013).
(4) Fire. For fires that would affect Vandenberg monkeyflower and
its habitat, the Air Force developed a GIS layer incorporating all
potential suitable habitat areas, which has been made available to fire
response crews for use during actual fire events. Multiple conservation
measures that address the potential threat of fire are included in the
addendum (Air Force 2012, p. 2), including the following:
(a) Established roads, both paved and unpaved, would be used to the
greatest extent possible as fire lines unless an emergency dictates
otherwise.
(b) Burned areas would be assessed after a fire for rehabilitation
options within 10 days of the area being declared safe for entry.
(c) Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat affected by wildfire and
rehabilitation projects will be monitored, which would include
recommendations for nonnative species control.
(d) Following any significant wildfire event within the range of
Vandenberg monkeyflower on Base, a Burn Area Emergency Response (BAER)
project will be initiated. This generally includes implementation of
erosion control, native vegetation restoration, firebreak
rehabilitation, and invasive species management.
Additionally, the addendum proposes to incorporate portions of
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat in a controlled burn program (Air Force
2012, p. 2).
(5) Recreation. No conservation measures have been proposed to
address the threat of recreation to Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve (Reserve)
Ecological Reserves are established under California State law to
provide protection for rare, threatened, or endangered native plants,
wildlife, aquatic organisms, and specialized terrestrial or aquatic
habitat types. According to the California Code of Regulations (14 CCR
Section 630), public entry and use of ecological reserves shall be
compatible with the primary purposes of such reserves, and subject to
general rules and regulations. The State Lands Commission signed a 49-
year lease of the Burton Mesa Ecological Reserve on January 20, 2000.
The purpose of the lease is to manage, operate, and maintain these
sovereign lands for the sensitive species and habitats they support
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 3). The CDFW developed a management plan for
the Reserve that guides management of habitats, species, and programs
to achieve the mission of CDFW to protect and enhance wildlife values
(Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 1).
Conservation measures are proposed in the management plan, as
outlined below. However, implementation of the management goals is
contingent upon available funding and staffing. Currently, no funding
is dedicated for the management of the Reserve and it is staffed by 10
percent of one biologist position. Some grant funding has been used for
specific management needs.
(1) Development. Because new development would not occur on the
Reserve, there are no conservation measures to implement that would
minimize this threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower.
(2) Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous Activities. Several
public utilities and local governmental agencies provide services to
the local community and use the Reserve to accomplish their roles.
Within the Reserve, agencies responsible for conducting maintenance
activities submit maintenance plans for all scheduled activities to
CDFW, who in turn may request conservation measures (such as modifying
the size and frequency of actions) to minimize impacts on natural
resources (Gevirtz et al. 2007, pp. 230-236). We are not aware of
specific projects in which the CDFW has requested conservation measures
to minimize the impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its habitat.
However, the goal is to minimize damage to sensitive biological and
cultural resources (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 230), which would include
minimizing impacts to Burton Mesa chaparral.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Species. The Reserve's management plan
encourages minimizing the impact and presence of invasive, nonnative
plants, including monitoring and removing nonnative plants; preventing
new introductions by working with public utilities, local governmental
agencies, and recreationists that use the Reserve; and restoring
disturbed and degraded areas with native species (Gevirtz et al. 2007,
pp. 241-242, 249-253). Additionally, during spring of 2011, the Santa
Barbara Botanic Garden conducted a 2-day educational workshop at the
Reserve to discuss Burton Mesa chaparral and identify the local plants,
learn more about the distribution and habitat requirements of some of
the County's rare plants, and document populations of rapidly spreading
weeds, such as Sahara mustard, that are threatening rare species (Junak
2011). Furthermore, volunteers, CDFW, and our staff have occasionally
mapped, removed, or chemically treated a few populations of invasive,
nonnative plants on the Reserve, including Sahara mustard, veldt grass,
iceplant, and pampas grass (Junak 2011; Meyer 2012, pers. comm.). We
recently provided funding ($60,000) to CDFW to compare various removal
methods for invasive species, in which part of the funding would be
used to enhance suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat on the Reserve
and monitor the results; work will commence in 2013 (CDFG 2011,
entire).
(4) Fire. The CDFW management plan for the Reserve calls for
coordination among the Santa Barbara County Fire Department,
enforcement agencies, local governmental agencies, and adjacent small
and large landowners to ensure that fire risk is reduced, that new
development projects adjacent to the Reserve are reviewed by CDFW staff
and address fuel reduction needs and requirements, and that appropriate
and efficient post-fire remediation takes place, where needed (Gevirtz
et al. 2007, pp. 255-262). Reducing the risk of fire would limit the
potential for wildfire to occur within Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat,
and thus reduce the impact of fire suppression activities and the
impact of invasive, nonnative plants invading the habitat post-fire
(see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants and Anthropogenic Fire
sections above). Additionally, the plan suggests
[[Page 64862]]
prohibiting the use of prescribed fire for the purposes of reducing
fuel load, but allowing use of controlled burns for small-scale
restoration projects (such as suppression of annual grasses or
stimulation of chaparral seed bank for restoration projects) (Gevirtz
et al. 2007, p. 258). No controlled burns within Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat have occurred to date.
(5) Recreation. CDFW developed a trails plan that shows existing
trails within the Reserve as well as proposed new trail construction;
seasonal trail closures or restrictions may occur to protect sensitive
resources such as wildlife breeding locations or rare plant assemblages
that vary from year to year (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p. 70). This system
of trails would reduce the risk of authorized recreational uses
directly impacting suitable Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. The
management plan calls for maintaining public access to the Reserve
through pedestrian hiking trails by providing a network of trails,
including loop trails, linking interesting areas while protecting
resources, and preventing unauthorized uses (Gevirtz et al. 2007, p.
231).
La Purisima Mission State Historic Park
General plans for State Parks are prepared to guide future
management and development of State Park System units. The goal of the
State Parks natural resource management program is to protect, restore,
and maintain the natural resources in the State Park System. A general
plan is the primary management document for each unit of the California
State Park System, defining a park's primary purpose, and establishing
a management direction for its future. The General Plan must satisfy
certain requirements of the Public Resources Code and be approved by
the California State Park and Recreation Commission before the
Department undertakes any development in the park that would constitute
a permanent commitment of natural or cultural resources. Further, broad
resource management policies concerning State Historic Parks are stated
in the Public Resources Code, the California Code of Regulations, and
the Department's Resource Management Directives (California State Parks
1991, p. 54). A general management plan for La Purisima Mission SHP was
completed in 1991 (California State Parks 1991, entire), and an
ecosystem characterization of La Purisima Mission SHP was completed in
2005 (Gevirtz et al. 2005, entire). Directives specific to La Purisima
Mission SHP that concern the habitat where Vandenberg monkeyflower
occurs include preserving Burton Mesa chaparral, protecting and
managing rare and endangered plants in perpetuity, controlling
nonnative plants that have become established, and developing a
prescribed-burn plan (California State Parks 1991, p. 54).
Conservation measures are proposed in the general management plan,
as outlined below. However, implementation of the management goals is
contingent upon available funding and staffing. State Parks often rely
upon the dedicated work of volunteers. Additionally, while the
management plan contains biological resource conservation measures, the
primary goal of the plan for La Purisima Mission SHP is to preserve the
historical setting and maintain the historical ``sense of place''--
visitors' sense of stepping back in history (California State Parks
1991, p. 3).
(1) Development. The significance of the historical setting at La
Purisima Mission SHP has always been given a high priority, as has
management of the existing facilities (California State Parks 1991, p.
120). There are multiple existing structures within the park, and any
new structures must provide for visitors' needs without competing for
attention with historical buildings or the natural setting. All new
development must be sensitive to that purpose of providing appropriate
visitor facilities without detracting from the historical and natural
setting of La Purisima Mission (California State Parks 1991, p. 121).
Additionally, Burton Mesa chaparral habitat areas are designated as
low-intensity use areas (California State Parks 1991, p. 66).
Therefore, any new development is unlikely to impact Vandenberg
monkeyflower or its habitat in the park.
(2) Utility Maintenance and Miscellaneous Activities. No
conservation measures are proposed for the threat of utility
maintenance actions within the park; however, there is no indication
that the maintenance activities for existing utilities have affected
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat.
(3) Invasive, Nonnative Species. California State Parks' resource
management programs try to remove or control invasive, nonnative
species and reestablish indigenous native species (California State
Parks 2013). Stands of veldt grass and pampas grass within Burton Mesa
chaparral were chemically treated in 2009 and 2010 (California State
Parks 2010, p. 3). Veldt grass removal efforts have focused on hand
removal in areas where it is encroaching into intact native habitat and
into sparsely vegetated areas where native annual herbs grow, including
Vandenberg monkeyflower. California State Parks received funding from
the Service's Coastal Program in August 2012 and anticipates commencing
veldt grass eradication efforts in 2013 to enhance Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat (Service 2012c, pp. 5-6). Specifically, California
State Parks will enhance 91 ac (37 ha) of upland habitat surrounding
extant occurrences of Vandenberg monkeyflower by removing veldt grass
(Service 2012c, entire).
(4) Fire. California State Parks requires that a wildfire
management plan be developed for every State Park. They developed a
general management plan in 1991 and stated their intent to continue to
work with the Santa Barbara County Fire Department, the California
Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, local fire districts, and
other appropriate agencies to implement and keep this plan current
(California State Parks 1991, p. 57). In 2007, California State Parks
initiated development of a wildfire management plan that would include
management strategies to protect the existing infrastructure
(buildings) and protect cultural resources and biological resources of
the park (which would include Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat), as well
as informing fire suppression agencies of the areas with high-value
resources and the limits of fire suppression activities in those areas.
No prescribed burns currently occur within the park (Cox 2013, pers.
comm).
(5) Recreation. As part of the general management plan, California
State Parks developed a trail management plan to reduce conflicts
between recreational use and historical values of the park (California
State Parks 1991, pp. 5, 109). Consideration will be given to
designating trails for specific types of uses and constructing new
trail segments to avoid conflicts (California State Parks 1991, p. 65).
The trail system requires continual brush and erosion control, in which
California State Parks often relies on numerous volunteers such as
scouts and environmental groups to assist the park each year in various
projects, from litter pickup to trail construction (California State
Parks 1991, p. 109). A designated trail system would reduce the risk of
authorized recreational uses directly impacting Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat. However, as described above in the Recreation and Other Human
Impacts section, the best available information indicates that
recreational activities are currently having minimal to no effect on
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat at La Purisima Mission SHP.
[[Page 64863]]
Summary of Conservation Measures Undertaken for Vandenberg AFB, the
Reserve, and La Purisima Mission SHP
Management goals for the Air Force, CDFW, and California State
Parks in these plans include, but are not limited to, minimizing the
spread and impact of invasive, nonnative species; working with local
agencies to recognize the importance of, and resource protections
afforded to, sensitive species like Vandenberg monkeyflower and its
habitat; and maintaining the natural resources of Burton Mesa,
especially Burton Mesa chaparral habitat. The Air Force, CDFW, and
California State Parks have attempted to address the greatest threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower by removing or chemically treating invasive,
nonnative plants on their lands, respectively. Working collaboratively
in some instances, the Service has funded and volunteered manpower to
help reduce the spread and impact of invasive, nonnative plants.
Overall, because implementation of the management plans is dependent
upon available funding and staffing, because of the quantity of
invasive, nonnative species that threaten Vandenberg monkeyflower
habitat (Burton Mesa chaparral), and because of the difficulty
eradicating invasive, nonnative species once they become established on
Burton Mesa, the implementation of the management plans as currently
constituted would not eliminate the threats described in Factor A.
Summary of Factor A
Most of the historical loss of Burton Mesa chaparral is due to
military, residential, and commercial development that occurred in the
past and resulted in many developed areas that have existed for
decades, although historical loss of chaparral is also due to the
presence and expansion of invasive, nonnative plants. Prior to 1938,
there were approximately 23,550 ac (9,350 ha) of Burton Mesa chaparral
(Hickson 1987, p. 34). In 2012, approximately 10,057 ac (4,070 ha) of
Burton Mesa chaparral remained, which represents a loss of 53 percent
of the original upland habitat (Service 2012a, unpublished data). Based
on the habitat characteristics of Burton Mesa chaparral, it is probable
that an equivalent percent loss of sandy openings that occur in-between
shrubs may have occurred over this timeframe (see Background--Habitat
section above).
The majority of remaining Burton Mesa chaparral where Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs is within Federal or State-owned lands and is
protected from development. Therefore, large-scale future development
of remaining Burton Mesa chaparral is not likely to occur and thus is
not a significant threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower. However, smaller
scale private property development; access to easements; maintenance of
utility, oil, and gas pipelines; fire and fire suppression; and
authorized and unauthorized recreational activities may continue to
take place throughout Burton Mesa. Some of these activities may occur
within Burton Mesa chaparral or adjacent to occurrences of Vandenberg
monkeyflower, resulting in the destruction and possible removal of
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat and creating open areas for nonnative
plants to invade. Therefore, the direct destruction and alteration of
chaparral habitat could continue to occur on a relatively small scale
and is thus considered a threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower both
currently and in the future.
The presence and proliferation of invasive, nonnative plants is a
threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat that has the most significant
impact to the species because nonnatives are spreading rapidly across
Burton Mesa. The Air Force, CDFW, and California State Parks are
implementing conservation measures to address the threat of nonnative
plants within Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat. Nevertheless, invasive,
nonnative plants are present at all locations where Vandenberg
monkeyflower occurs, are known to alter native habitat, including that
of Vandenberg monkeyflower, and are reducing the abundance and
diversity of native plant species. Many of the nonnative species that
occur on Burton Mesa are species deemed to pose significant ecological
concerns because they displace native vegetation and occupy sandy
openings where Vandenberg monkeyflower grows. Additionally, development
that has fragmented the mesa, ground disturbances along easements, and
authorized and unauthorized recreational activities increase the
pathways for nonnative plants to establish and spread. Moreover, fire
increases the potential for the invasion of nonnative plants by
creating bare ground that facilitates the spread of nonnative
vegetation. Therefore, with the prevailing onshore wind, an abundant
upwind source of nonnative plants and seed, and continued ground
disturbances, we conclude that the presence and expansion of invasive,
nonnative plants is a threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat both
currently and in the future.
Climate change may have potential impacts on Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat, such as increased temperatures and
decreased precipitation that would likely reduce suitable habitat.
However, because of the moderating influence of the ocean, the effect
of climate change on Burton Mesa flora may be moderated.
Factor B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or
Educational Purposes
No available information indicates any impacts to Vandenberg
monkeyflower related to overutilization for commercial, recreational,
scientific, or educational purposes or that these activities would
increase in the future. Therefore, we do not consider this factor to be
a threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower, nor do we expect it to be in the
future.
Factor C. Disease or Predation
There is no available information indicating any impacts to
Vandenberg monkeyflower related to disease or predation, or that
disease or predation may become a concern in the future. Therefore, we
do not consider disease or predation to be threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower, nor do we expect them to become threats in the future.
Factor D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms
Under this factor, we examine whether existing regulatory
mechanisms are inadequate to address the threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower discussed under other factors. We give strongest weight to
statutes and their implementing regulations, and management direction
that stems from those laws and regulations. They are nondiscretionary
and enforceable, and are considered a regulatory mechanism under this
analysis. Examples include State governmental actions enforced under a
State statute or constitution, or Federal action under statute.
Some other programs are more voluntary in nature or dependent on
available funding (see Conservation Measures Undertaken section above);
in those cases, we analyze the specific facts for that effort to
ascertain its effectiveness at mitigating the threat and the extent to
which it can be relied on in the future. Having evaluated the
significance of the threat as mitigated by any such conservation
efforts, we analyze under Factor D the extent to which existing
regulatory mechanisms adequately address the specific threats to the
species. Regulatory mechanisms,
[[Page 64864]]
if they exist, may preclude the need for listing if we determine that
such mechanisms adequately address the threats to the species such that
listing is not warranted.
Vandenberg monkeyflower is not federally or State-listed as
endangered or threatened. The Service added this species to the Federal
list of candidate species on November 10, 2010 (75 FR 69222; see
Previous Federal Actions section above); however, candidate species are
afforded no protections under the Act. The California Native Plant
Society (CNPS) classifies this species as 1B.1, which denotes that a
taxon is seriously endangered in California (CNPS 2012).
State Regulations
The California Endangered Species Act (CESA) allows the Fish and
Game Commission to designate species, including plants, as threatened
or endangered. The CESA makes it illegal to import, export, ``take,''
possess, purchase, sell, or attempt to do any of those actions to
species that are designated as threatened, endangered, or candidates
for listing, unless permitted by CDFW. Vandenberg monkeyflower is not
listed as threatened or endangered under the CESA (CDFW 2012).
The Native Plant Protection Act (NPPA) was enacted in 1977 and
allows the Fish and Game Commission to designate plants as rare or
endangered. The NPPA prohibits take of endangered or rare native
plants, but includes some exceptions for agricultural and nursery
operations, emergencies, and (after properly notifying CDFW) vegetation
removal from canals, roads, and other sites, changes in land use, and
certain other situations. Vandenberg monkeyflower is not designated as
rare or endangered under the NPPA (CDFW 2012).
Ecological Reserves are established under California State law to
provide protection for rare, threatened, or endangered native plants,
wildlife, aquatic organisms, and specialized terrestrial or aquatic
habitat types. Likewise, the goal of the State Parks resource
management program is to protect, restore and maintain the natural
resources in the State Park System (see Conservation Measures
Undertaken section above).
The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) requires a full
disclosure of the potential impacts that proposed projects on non-
Federal lands will have on the environment, including sensitive
resources. CEQA does not confer any protection to sensitive species,
but merely requires disclosure of potential impacts. Lead CEQA agencies
are also required to disclose potential impacts to CNPS list 1B.1
species, including Vandenberg monkeyflower. The lead agency for CEQA
analysis is the public agency with primary authority or jurisdiction
over the project, and is responsible for conducting a review of the
project and consulting with other agencies responsible for resources
affected by the project; this agency is typically a county, city, or
special district agency. Three proposed projects have undergone CEQA
analysis on Burton Mesa in recent years, and the CEQA process
adequately disclosed impacts of these projects (see County or Local
Regulations below for a discussion of the CEQA process for these three
proposed projects).
County and Local Regulations
(1) The County of Santa Barbara, which is the lead agency
responsible for CEQA review for projects on non-Federal lands where
Vandenberg monkeyflower occurs, approved the Clubhouse Estates
residential development in August 2005 (County of Santa Barbara
Planning Commission 2005) (see Factor A--Development for a description
of the project).
While the CEQA review disclosed impacts to Vandenberg monkeyflower
and its habitat at the Clubhouse Estates project site, the CEQA review
does not afford protection to this species or its habitat. Therefore,
the County of Santa Barbara included conditions to their approval of
the Clubhouse Estates development project. County stipulations to the
Clubhouse Estates approval that would benefit Vandenberg monkeyflower
and its habitat included: onsite habitat restoration and preservation
plan, an open space management plan, onsite habitat restoration, and
native plant propagation. Thus, the project proponent (LFR, Inc.)
developed a restoration, construction monitoring, and resource
protection plan to address the mitigation of native ecological
resources impacted by the development project, to provide for
restoration of disturbed habitat within the designated open space (Lot
54), and to describe ecological resource protection measures that would
be implemented during construction (LFR, Inc. 2006, p. 1, pp. 34-60).
The restoration plan was developed (LFR, Inc. 2006) but has not been
fully implemented, possibly due to the development project falling into
foreclosure in December 2009 (VVCSD 2011). Additionally, LFR, Inc.
conducted actions to further preserve Vandenberg monkeyflower by
collecting seeds and storing them at the Santa Barbara Botanic Garden,
salvaging topsoil from where Vandenberg monkeyflower previously
occurred on the project site (which likely contained a seed bank), and
depositing the topsoil outside of the project site and within suitable
habitat, and transplanting three individual plants (McGowan in litt.
2007).
The County is also responsible for permitting other activities,
such as grading, according to Santa Barbara County Grading Code,
Chapter 14. A grading permit would have associated erosion and sediment
controls, including best management practices and other conditions of
approval that would minimize impacts to sensitive biological resources
(County of Santa Barbara Planning and Development 2013; LFR, Inc. 2006,
entire). Our records indicate that the Clubhouse Estates project site
was cleared prior to the developer's acquisition of a grading permit
from the County (Mooney in litt 2006; Meyer in litt. 2006). Thus, in
this case, County regulations concerning grading were inadequate to
ensure proper implementation of the permitting process, which would
have included implementing the conditions of approval that serve to
minimize impacts to sensitive biological resources. As a result,
clearing the Clubhouse Estates project site destroyed Burton Mesa
chaparral that was occupied by Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals and
removed adjacent habitat that likely harbored a seed bank (Meyer in
litt. 2010b; see Development--Private Lands under Factor A).
Additionally, this unpermitted ground disturbance created open areas
where veldt grass and Sahara mustard have expanded to areas where they
did not occur prior to the vegetation being cleared from the project
site (Meyer in litt. 2010b; see Invasive, Nonnative Species section
above).
(2) The City of Lompoc conducted a CEQA review for the Burton Ranch
(see Factor A--Development for a description of the project).
Approximately 141 of 149 ac (57 of 60 ha) of the project site would be
developed, including removal of 83 ac (34 ha) of chaparral habitat on
Burton Mesa. No Vandenberg monkeyflower has been observed within this
project site. A 100-ft (30-ha) buffer between the development and the
Reserve boundary to the north of the project site and 10 ac (4 ha) of
onsite open space were proposed as part of the project (SAIC 2005a).
Additionally, to mitigate for the removal of native vegetation at the
Burton Ranch project site, the project proponent completed a
conservation easement with the Land Trust for Santa
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Barbara County (Land Trust) that will protect 95 ac (38 ha) of land
featuring unique Burton Mesa chaparral, coastal scrub and oak savannah
habitat near Vandenberg Village, an area that is known as the Burton
Ranch Chaparral Preserve (Feeney in litt. 2012). The Land Trust
received this 95 ac (38 ha) and will monitor the property and work with
CDFW to protect and enhance the ecological resources of the site (Land
Trust 2013). This area straddles adjacent portions of the Burton Mesa
Ecological Reserve and is connected to the Reserve via walking trails
(Land Trust in litt. 2011).
(3) The Allan Hancock College District conducted the CEQA analysis
for a proposal to construct a public safety complex at Allan Hancock
College (see Factor A--Development section for a description of the
project). The proposal includes removal of at least 40 ac (16 ha) of
chaparral habitat on Burton Mesa along the northern project boundary
that is contiguous with the Davis Creek drainage. Vandenberg
monkeyflower has not been observed within this project site.
Approximately 105 of the 200 ac (42 of 81 ha) of the site is covered
with chaparral habitat and, minus the 40 ac (16 ha) of chaparral within
the project footprint, approximately 65 ac (26 ha) of chaparral habitat
that is contiguous would be preserved (Allan Hancock College 2009, pp.
9, 135). Preserving chaparral in this area may reduce the potential for
nonnative plants to invade the intact Burton Mesa chaparral that is
contiguous with the Reserve to the north of this project site.
Despite implementation of the CEQA process and disclosure of the
impacts to this species or its habitat, these projects illustrate that
development can constitute a direct threat (removal of Vandenberg
monkeyflower individuals) to Vandenberg monkeyflower and/or suitable
habitat, and this threat is present and is expected to continue into
the future (see Development--Private Lands section under Factor A
above) within Burton Mesa chaparral (Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat)
on non-Federal lands. Threats to the habitat are exacerbated because
ground-disturbing projects further fragment chaparral habitat and
create open areas (i.e., vectors) for invasive, nonnative plants to
establish and further expand into Burton Mesa (see the Invasive,
Nonnative Species section above).
Federal Regulations
The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) requires full
disclosure of potential impacts that proposed projects on Federal lands
or with Federal involvement will have on the environment, including
sensitive resources. The NEPA process would apply to projects proposed
on Vandenberg AFB and projects on non-Federal lands that include a
Federal nexus, such as funding or permitting by a Federal agency. The
NEPA analysis, like CEQA, does not confer any protection to sensitive
species, but merely discloses potential impacts. Although Federal
agencies may include conservation measures for Vandenberg monkeyflower
as a result of the NEPA process, any such measures are typically
voluntary in nature and are not required by statute.
For example, although the Vandenberg monkeyflower is not yet a
federally threatened or endangered species, it is recognized by
Vandenberg AFB as a species deserving of conservation measures as
demonstrated by the Air Force's recent submittal of a proposal to
include Vandenberg monkeyflower in their INRMP (Air Force 2012). The
Air Force could include conservation measures for Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat as a result of the NEPA process. The NEPA
would not itself regulate activities that might affect Vandenberg
monkeyflower, but it would require full evaluation and disclosure of
information regarding the effects of contemplated Federal actions on
sensitive species and their habitats.
The Sikes Act requires the Department of Defense to develop and
implement INRMPs for military installations in the United States.
INRMPs direct the management and use of the lands on a military
installation and are prepared in cooperation with the Service and State
fish and wildlife agencies (i.e., CDFW) to ensure proper consideration
of fish, wildlife, and habitat needs (see Conservation Measures
Undertaken section above for more discussion of Vandenberg AFB's
INRMP).
Summary of Factor D
The existing regulatory mechanisms at the Federal and State levels
require evaluation of potential actions that may impact Vandenberg
monkeyflower and its habitat on Burton Mesa. At the Federal level, the
NEPA only requires evaluation of impacts to the human environment. The
Sikes Act requires military installations to develop INRMPs to ensure
proper consideration of fish, wildlife, and habitat needs on their
lands. However, no protections are in place at the local, State, and
Federal levels that are intended to protect a plant species that is not
Federally or State-listed, although Vandenberg AFB has proposed to
include this species in their INRMP. Additionally, at least one
incident of unauthorized grading occurred without following the
required local permit process; loss of Vandenberg monkeyflower
individuals and habitat was documented.
Federal and State ownership of much of the occupied Vandenberg
monkeyflower habitat and the regulatory purposes that define the use of
those Federal and State lands protect the species from direct losses of
habitat and provide further protection from many of the forms of
disturbance described above. However, the current regulatory regime
does not address the majority of impacts associated with loss of
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat (i.e., development of private lands
that result in habitat loss, fire and fire suppression efforts,
authorized and unauthorized recreation activities, and the invasion and
expansion of invasive, nonnative species). As described above under
Factor A, the primary threat with the greatest severity and magnitude
of impact to Vandenberg monkeyflower is invasive, nonnative species
invasion and expansion. The existing regulatory mechanisms currently in
place at the local, State, and national levels are inadequate to
address this threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower and its habitat.
Factor E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Its Continued
Existence
Competition for Resources With Invasive, Nonnative Species
In Factor A, we discussed how invasive, nonnative plants alter the
habitat that supports Vandenberg monkeyflower. In this section, we
discuss how invasive, nonnative plants compete with individuals of
Vandenberg monkeyflower for light, water, and soil nutrients.
Invasion of nonnative plants and in particular nonnative grasses
are a threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower because small annuals such as
this species most likely cannot compete with fast-growing nonnative
plants for light, water, and soil nutrients (refer to Barrows et al.
2009; Lambrinos 2000; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992). Grasses have long
been recognized as effective competitors with herbaceous and woody
species (Davis and Mooney 1985; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992).
(1) Sunlight. Rapidly growing nonnative grasses can reduce light at
the soil surface and thereby reduce the photosynthetic ability of
competitors (Thompson 1991, pp. 394-395). Like certain other annual
Diplacus taxa,
[[Page 64866]]
Vandenberg monkeyflower only grows in habitats with little to no
competition from invasive, nonnative plants (VFWO 2013). As described
in Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants, high densities of veldt grass
would easily overtop Vandenberg monkeyflower because of monkeyflower's
small stature, which in turn creates shaded conditions that are not
suitable for germination and growth of Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Additionally, Sahara mustard is able to form a canopy up to 3 ft (1 m)
aboveground; this forces the native plants growing under the canopy to
put more energy into growing taller at the expense of producing
branches, flowers, and fruits (Barrows et al. 2009, p. 683). Therefore,
because veldt grass and Sahara mustard grow taller in stature and more
quickly than Vandenberg monkeyflower, these invading nonnative plants
would likely shade and reduce the productivity and survival of
Vandenberg monkeyflower where these species occur in close proximity to
one another. Veldt grass in particular is of immediate concern given
its presence at: (1) All of the Vandenberg monkeyflower extant
occurrences; and (2) one potentially extirpated occurrence (i.e., Lower
Santa Lucia Canyon (Meyer in litt. 2012c)), where veldt grass is a
dominant species within the sandy openings and where herbs that are
commonly associated with Vandenberg monkeyflower are absent.
(2) Water and Soil Nutrients. Nonnative grasses compete effectively
with native species for water and soil nutrients (D'Antonio and
Vitousek 1992, p. 70). The effective uptake of water and nutrients by
grasses is the result of their dense shallow root systems. The root
systems of most woody species are deeper and less dense than those of
grasses; once woody species become large, they are generally thought to
have access to moisture and nutrients from portions of the soil profile
below grass roots (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 70). Shallow-rooted
herbs that occur in open areas were found to deplete soil moisture to a
maximum depth of 1.6 ft (0.5 m); grassland plants had roots active to
2.5 ft (0.75 m); and chaparral had roots extending below 6.6 ft (2.0 m)
(Davis and Mooney 1985, p. 525). Therefore, grasses are most effective
as competitors against seedlings and shallow-rooted annuals rather than
saplings or adults of woody species (Davis and Mooney 1985, p. 528;
D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 70). However, Knoop and Walker (1985,
p. 249) demonstrated that grasses can reduce water availability in the
subsoil at a depth of 1 to 4.25 ft (0.3 to 1.3 m) where shrub roots are
common.
Many examples exist of invasive, nonnative plants outcompeting
native herbs and shrubs for water and soil nutrients, some of which
include the following:
(1) Davis and Mooney (1985, p. 528) demonstrated across a
grassland-chaparral ecotone in Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve
(approximately 7.5 mi (12 km) west of Palo Alto, California) that bare-
zone annual herbs, such as Navarretia heterodoxa (Calistoga
pincushionplant) and Lessingia germanorum var. glandulifera (valley
lessingia), would be poor competitors against grassland species, in
part, because these annual plants are shallow rooted and nonnative
annual grasses are able to deplete the water in shallow soil.
(2) Eliason and Allen (1997, p. 252) conducted a study in the Santa
Margarita Ecological Reserve (near Temecula, California) and determined
that the growth and survival of transplanted Artemisia californica
(California sagebrush) seedlings was significantly reduced in the
presence of Mediterranean annual grasses from germination through the
first growing season. This effect was due to the depletion of soil
water because young California sagebrush and nonnative annual grasses
are both shallow rooted.
(3) Melgoza et al. (1990, pp. 11-12) conducted a study in Belle
Flats (approximately 22 mi (35 km) north of Reno, Nevada) and
demonstrated that competition with Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass)
negatively affected the productivity and water status of native
perennial species. Melgoza et al. (1990, pp. 7, 11-12) found cheatgrass
suppressed productivity of native species for an extended period of
time (12 years after a fire) once it was established in open areas
around native species, thus enhancing its capability after a fire to
exploit soil resources and enhance its status in the community.
Because individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower are small in stature
(growing up to 10 in (25.4 cm) tall), invasive, nonnative plants that
grow taller in stature and quicker than this species (such as veldt
grass and Sahara mustard; see Factor A--Invasive, Nonnative Plants and
Anthropogenic Fire section) may inhibit the growth and production of
Vandenberg monkeyflower attempting to grow nearby. Moreover, because
Vandenberg monkeyflower likely is shallow rooted like other small
annual plants that grow in sandy openings within chaparral, invasive,
nonnative grasses that occur within and near the species are likely
outcompeting it by depleting the water at shallow depths and soil
nutrients that it requires. Veldt grass is of particular concern
because: (1) It is present at nine (100 percent) of the Vandenberg
monkeyflower extant occurrences and one potentially extirpated
occurrence (i.e., Lower Santa Lucia Canyon); and (2) it has deep-
reaching roots that are able to tolerate Mediterranean climates
(Tothill 1962, pp 132-161). Thus, veldt grass could deplete the water
and soil nutrients that would otherwise be available for Vandenberg
monkeyflower.
Small Population Size and Restricted Range
According to the criteria put forth by the World Conservation
Union, as modified for plants, a species that has life history,
population, and distribution attributes similar to those of Vandenberg
monkeyflower is considered to have a high risk of extinction in the
wild in the immediate future (Keith 1998, pp. 1085-1087). Species with
few populations and individuals are vulnerable to the threat of
naturally occurring events, which can cause extinction through
mechanisms operating either at the genetic, population, or landscape
level (Shaffer 1981, pp. 131-134; Primack 1998, pp. 279-308).
Environmental stochasticity is annual variation in reproduction and
death rates in response to weather, disease, competition, predation, or
other factors external to the population (Shaffer 1981, p. 131).
Natural catastrophes or prolonged drought could also result in the
extirpation of a small population (Shaffer 1981, p. 131).
The genetic characteristics of Vandenberg monkeyflower have not
been investigated; therefore, the degree to which genetic
characteristics contribute to the likelihood of this species being
vulnerable to extinction is unknown. However, random events operating
at the population and landscape levels may increase the chance of
extinction for Vandenberg monkeyflower. Although data are not available
to determine population trends for this species, the best available
information gained from multiple survey years between 2003 and 2012
indicate that 3 occurrences (33 percent) have fewer than 100
individuals. Six occurrences (67 percent) were recently shown to harbor
more than 100 individuals, and 2 of those 6 occurrences (22 percent)
contained more than 1,000 individuals (see Current Status of Vandenberg
Monkeyflower section above). Numbers of plants observed during the most
recent surveys are low for the three occurrences that have historically
had
[[Page 64867]]
fewer than 100 individuals observed (but a seed bank may still exist):
(1) Four individuals were found in 2006 at Oak Canyon, although no
individuals were found during the most recent surveys in 2010 and 2012
(VFWO 2013; Air Force 2012, p. 1; Lum in litt. 2012b; Rutherford in
litt. 2012).
(2) Twenty-five individuals were found in 2006 at the Santa Lucia
Canyon occurrence, and one individual was found during the most recent
survey in 2010 (Ballard 2006; Lum in litt. 2012b).
(3) Five individuals were found in 2003 at the Volans Avenue
occurrence, one in 2007, and no plants were found in other years
surveyed between 2004 and 2009 (Meyer in litt. 2007; Ballard in litt.
2007).
Vandenberg monkeyflower fits the profile of a species that is
considered to have small population numbers for an annual plant and is
vulnerable to extinction because it has a restricted geographic range,
and less than 10 known occurrences with less than 10,000 mature
individuals (Keith 1998, pp. 1085-1087) (see Distribution of Vandenberg
Monkeyflower--Current Status section above). Additionally, the
potential further fragmentation of habitat and resulting increased
isolation of Vandenberg monkeyflower occurrences affect the species
rangewide by increasing the risk of population loss and potentially
subsequent loss of genetic characteristics.
Species with few populations or those with low numbers may be
subject to forces at the population level that affect their ability to
complete their life cycles successfully. The number and density of
flowering plants in a population can be important determinants of
pollinator abundance and behavior (Jennersten 1988, pp. 361-363;
Bernhardt et al. 2008, p. 948). Reduced numbers of individuals of
flowering plants may lead to a reduction in abundance of pollinators
and subsequent seed set and fitness of seed progeny (Menges 1991, p.
162). Specific information is not available for Vandenberg
monkeyflower; however, these studies on other plant-pollinator
relationships point out the importance of pollinators that is likely
applicable to Vandenberg monkeyflower.
The invasion of nonnative plants has the ability to reduce the
abundance of pollinators, which can have deleterious effects on
reproduction of native plants. Jennersten (1988, p. 363) found that
insect diversity, insect visitation rates to Dianthus deltoides (maiden
pink), and number of seeds produced were significantly reduced where
maiden pink was in a more fragmented habitat compared to continuous
habitat. Lambrinos (2000, pp. 228) found that invasion of nonnative
plants such as pampas grass can reduce the abundance of pollinators
because pampas grass replaces nectar- and pollen-rich flowers of native
shrubs and reduces the diversity of feeding sites provided by woody
perennials. Lambrinos (2000, p. 227) also noted that arthropod (spiders
and insects) abundance is lower overall, and known to be absent in
areas dominated by pampas grass. In contrast, Bernhardt et al. (2008,
p. 948) found that pollination of a native species such as Lupinus
perennis (sundial lupine) increased with both population size and
population density, which significantly affected insect visitation
rates. Therefore, because Vandenberg monkeyflower has less than 10
occurrences, consists of low numbers of individuals, and invasive,
nonnative plants are replacing native vegetation of Burton Mesa, this
species may experience reduced reproduction because of reduced
visitation by insect pollinators. However, we are unaware of specific
information concerning the extent to which this may be a threat for
Vandenberg monkeyflower.
Annual plants that are subject to wide fluctuations in population
numbers from year to year, such as Vandenberg monkeyflower, may have
difficulty maintaining a viable population size after a series of poor
seed-production years. Additionally, if the host plants (plants being
visited by pollinators) are partially self-incompatible, reduction in
population size may lead to increased self-pollination and may reduce
the level of genetic variability. At the landscape level, random
natural events, such as storms, drought, or fire, could destroy a
significant percentage of individuals or entire populations. Because
Vandenberg monkeyflower comprises a small number of locations and
individuals, and is restricted to a small geographic area on Burton
Mesa, this species' risk of extinction increases from such naturally
occurring events. No empirical information is available to estimate
trends for Vandenberg monkeyflower populations; however, the continued
decrease in habitat (especially from nonnative plant invasions) is
contributing to habitat fragmentation and impacting the species'
ability to persist.
Recreation
Recreational use occurs on Burton Mesa within Vandenberg AFB, the
Reserve, and La Purisima Mission SHP. We discussed the effects to
Vandenberg monkeyflower habitat resulting from recreational use (see
Factor A--Recreation); however, recreational activities may also result
in trampling individuals of Vandenberg monkeyflower. The Volans Avenue
occurrence of Vandenberg monkeyflower is adjacent to a sewer line
easement that is also used for hiking and dog walking. Recreational
users are encouraged to stay within existing and designated trails (see
Factor A--Recreation). No other location where this species occurs is
adjacent to designated trails. Therefore, the best available
information indicates that recreational activities involving casual
human use are having minimal effect on individuals of Vandenberg
monkeyflower. Unauthorized recreational activities such as mountain
biking and ORV use have resulted in damaged native vegetation, and
squashed and sometimes broken plant parts (Meyer in litt. 2010c; Meyer
in litt. 2013). Determining where the unauthorized ORV activity
originates on the Reserve is difficult because of the historical
network of trails and roads. Available information does not indicate
the extent and degree to which ORV activity and mountain biking may be
impacting Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals.
Summary of Factor E
Competition for light, water, and soil nutrients from invasive,
nonnative vegetation, particularly nonnative grasses, is a threat to
Vandenberg monkeyflower. Because this species has a restricted range
and small population numbers, it is vulnerable to naturally occurring
events such as a wildfire, storms, and drought that could negatively
affect its growth and productivity. Additionally, because of the
restricted range, small number of individuals at each occurrence, and
the spread of invasive, nonnative plants adjacent to each occurrence,
this species is vulnerable to a reduction of visits by pollinating
insects. The best available information indicates that casual
recreational use has a minimal impact to individuals. Unauthorized
recreational uses (ORVs and mountain biking) have the potential to
result in damage to the native vegetation; however, the best
information available does not indicate a direct threat to individuals
of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Indirect effects of potential ground
disturbance could create openings in the vegetation and assist the seed
spread and establishment of nonnative vegetation. Therefore, we
conclude that competition for resources with invasive, nonnative
species and small population size and restricted range are threats to
[[Page 64868]]
Vandenberg monkeyflower currently and in the future.
Combination of Factors
Many of the threats discussed above act in concert, and the
resulting effects to Vandenberg monkeyflower are amplified. For
example, some land uses and development or maintenance activities
(Factor A) create ground disturbance and subsequent openings in the
vegetation where nonnative plants (Factor A) can invade, expand, and
outcompete native vegetation (Factor E). Fires on Burton Mesa (Factor
A) result in an increase in nonnative vegetation (Factor A). Similarly,
an abundance of nonnative vegetation, particularly grasses (Factor A
and E), may result in an increase in fire frequency (Factor A). The
availability of habitat and small overall population size (Factor E)
may be affected in a changing climate and by events such as wildfire
(Factor A). Thus, Vandenberg monkeyflower's productivity may be reduced
because of these threats, either singularly or in combination. Existing
regulatory mechanisms have not proven effective at protecting
Vandenberg monkeyflower or its habitat from these threats (Factor D).
The presence of invasive plants is the most significant threat to
this species, both alone and in combination with other Factors (e.g.,
anthropogenic fire, recreation). The combination of factors would
likely create a cumulative or synergistic threat to the existence of
Vandenberg monkeyflower. Given these circumstances, the combined
effects of current threats to the population put the species at risk
rangewide, although the magnitude or extent of such threats to the
viability of the species is not at this time determinable from
available information.
Proposed Determination
We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial
information available regarding the past, present, and future threats
to Vandenberg monkeyflower. We have identified threats to Vandenberg
monkeyflower attributable to Factors A, D, and E.
In the summary of the threats described in detail above, we found
that Vandenberg monkeyflower suitable habitat on Burton Mesa has been
displaced by military, residential, and commercial development,
although the most significant ongoing threat to Vandenberg monkeyflower
is the loss of habitat due to the presence and continual spread of
invasive, nonnative plants (Factor A). Approximately 53 percent of
Burton Mesa chaparral habitat has been lost, with only 10,057 ac (4,070
ha) of the 23,550 ac (9,350 ha) that existed before 1938 remaining.
Additionally, invasive, nonnative plants, in particular veldt
grass, are present and continuing to expand at all nine extant
locations. No Vandenberg monkeyflower individuals have been observed at
the three smallest extant locations (in the last 3 years at one
location and the last 6 years at the other two locations) even though a
residual seed bank is likely present. Burton Mesa chaparral is also
subject to an anthropogenic fire regime that can increase the presence
of invasive plants (Factor A). Casual human recreational use and
utility maintenance activities can contribute to habitat disturbance
that facilitates pathways for nonnative species to invade Burton Mesa
chaparral habitat (Factor A).
Furthermore, invasive, nonnative plants are likely competing with
Vandenberg monkeyflower for sunlight, water, and soil resources, and
the species' restricted range and small population size makes it
vulnerable to changing environmental conditions due to climate change
and other random, naturally occurring events (Factor E). Small
population size is a highlighted concern in part due to the low number
of individuals found to exist at the 3 smallest extant occurrences, in
particular 3 of the 9 occurrences that have a range of 0 to 25
individuals documented between 2003 and 2012. The threats described
above for Vandenberg monkeyflower occur across its entire range,
resulting in a negative impact on the species' distribution, abundance,
and probability of long-term persistence. Existing regulatory
mechanisms are not adequate to protect the species or its habitat from
these identified threats (Factor D).
The Act defines an endangered species as any species that is ``in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range'' and a threatened species as any species ``that is likely to
become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range
within the foreseeable future.'' We find that Vandenberg monkeyflower
has a restricted range and is facing ongoing and projected threats
across its range. We conclude that it meets the definition of an
endangered species throughout its entire range due primarily to: (1)
The invasion, spread, and competition of invasive, nonnative species at
all nine extant locations; and (2) small population size that makes it
vulnerable to stochastic events. These impacts are heightened due to
anthropogenic fire conditions that promote further invasion of
nonnative species; recreation and other human activities that
contribute to the spread of invasive, nonnative species; and continued
development on private lands that further reduces and fragments the
remaining suitable habitat. The threats to its continued existence are
not commencing in the foreseeable future (which would result in a
status determination of a threatened species), but are immediate and
ongoing. We base this determination on the immediacy, severity, and
scope of the threats described above. Therefore, on the basis of the
best available scientific and commercial information, we propose
listing Vandenberg monkeyflower as an endangered species in accordance
with sections 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act.
Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species may
warrant listing if it meets the definition of an endangered or
threatened species throughout all or a significant portion of its
range. The Vandenberg monkeyflower that is proposed for listing in this
rule is highly restricted in its range and the threats occur throughout
its range. Therefore, we assessed the status of Vandenberg monkeyflower
throughout its entire range. The threats to the survival of the species
occur throughout the species range and are not restricted to any
particular significant portion of that range. Accordingly, our
assessment and proposed determination applies to the species throughout
its entire range.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions,
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain
practices. Recognition through listing results in public awareness and
conservation by Federal, State, Tribal, and local agencies, private
organizations, and individuals. The Act encourages cooperation with the
States and requires that recovery actions be carried out for all listed
species. The protection required by Federal agencies and the
prohibitions against certain activities are discussed, in part, below.
The primary purpose of the Act is the conservation of endangered
and threatened species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. The
ultimate goal of such conservation efforts is the recovery of these
listed species, so that they no longer need the protective measures of
the Act. Subsection 4(f) of the Act requires the Service to develop and
implement recovery plans for the conservation of endangered and
threatened species. The recovery planning process involves the
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identification of actions that are necessary to halt or reverse the
species' decline by addressing the threats to its survival and
recovery. The goal of this process is to restore listed species to a
point where they are secure, self-sustaining, and functioning
components of their ecosystems.
Recovery planning includes the development of a recovery outline
shortly after a species is listed, preparation of a draft and final
recovery plan, and revisions to the plan as significant new information
becomes available. The recovery outline guides the immediate
implementation of urgent recovery actions and describes the process to
be used to develop a recovery plan. The recovery plan identifies site-
specific management actions that will achieve recovery of the species,
measurable criteria that indicate when a species may be downlisted or
delisted, and methods for monitoring recovery progress. Recovery plans
also establish a framework for agencies to coordinate their recovery
efforts and provide estimates of the cost of implementing recovery
tasks. Recovery teams (comprising species experts, Federal and State
agencies, nongovernmental organizations, or stakeholders) are often
established to develop recovery plans. If a final listing rule is
completed for Vandenberg monkeyflower, the Service will develop and
complete a recovery outline, draft recovery plan, and the final
recovery plan that will be available on our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/endangered), or from our Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office
(see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Implementation of recovery actions generally requires the
participation of a broad range of partners, including other Federal
agencies, States, Tribal, nongovernmental organizations, businesses,
and private landowners. Examples of recovery actions include habitat
restoration (for example, restoration of native vegetation), research,
captive propagation and reintroduction, and outreach and education. The
recovery of many listed species cannot be accomplished solely on
Federal lands because their range may occur primarily or solely on non-
Federal lands. To achieve recovery of these species requires
cooperative conservation efforts on private, State, and Tribal lands.
If this species is listed, funding for recovery actions may be
available from a variety of sources, including Federal budgets, State
programs, and cost share grants for non-Federal landowners, the
academic community, and nongovernmental organizations. Additionally,
pursuant to section 6 of the Act, the State of California would be
eligible for Federal funds to implement management actions that promote
the protection and recovery of Vandenberg monkeyflower. Information on
our grant programs that are available to aid species recovery can be
found at: http://www.fws.gov/grants.
Although Vandenberg monkeyflower is only proposed for listing under
the Act at this time, please let us know if you are interested in
participating in recovery efforts for this species. Additionally, we
invite you to submit any new information on this species whenever it
becomes available and any information you may have for recovery
planning purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Section 7(a) of the Act requires Federal agencies to evaluate their
actions with respect to any species that is proposed or listed as
endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical habitat, if
any is designated. Regulations implementing this interagency
cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR part 402.
Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires Federal agencies to confer with the
Service on any action that is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of a species proposed for listing or result in destruction or
adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a species is
listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires Federal
agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out
are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or
destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal action
may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible
Federal agency must enter into consultation with the Service.
Federal agencies proposing activities within the species' habitat
that may need to conference or consult or both with the Service as
described in the preceding paragraph include the Department of Defense,
the Bureau of Prisons, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and
the Federal Highway Administration. Activities potentially include
management and any other landscape-altering activities on Federal lands
administered by the Department of Defense or the Bureau of Prisons,
issuance of section 404 Clean Water Act permits by the Army Corps of
Engineers, construction and management of gas pipeline and power line
ROWs licensed by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, and funding
by the Federal Highway Administration for the construction and
maintenance of roads or highways.
The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to endangered plants.
All prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, implemented by 50 CFR
17.61, apply. These prohibitions, in part, make it illegal for any
person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to import or
export, transport in interstate or foreign commerce in the course of a
commercial activity, sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign
commerce, or remove and reduce the species to possession from areas
under Federal jurisdiction. Additionally, for plants listed as
endangered, the Act prohibits the malicious damage or destruction on
areas under Federal jurisdiction and the removal, cutting, digging up,
or damaging or destroying of such plants in knowing violation of any
State law or regulation, including State criminal trespass law. Certain
exceptions to the prohibitions apply to agents of the Service and State
conservation agencies. Vandenberg monkeyflower is not currently
designated as rare or endangered under the NPPA or the CESA (CDFW
2012).
CEQA requires a full disclosure of the potential impacts that
proposed projects on non-Federal lands will have on the environment,
including sensitive resources. However, CEQA does not confer any
protection to sensitive species, but merely discloses potential
impacts. The lead agency for CEQA analysis is the public agency with
primary authority or jurisdiction over the project, and is responsible
for conducting a review of the project and consulting with other
agencies responsible for resources affected by the project. Under CEQA,
lead agencies are required to disclose potential impacts from proposals
to CNPS list 1B.1 species; this mechanism may indirectly provide some
protection to Vandenberg monkeyflower.
We may issue permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered and threatened wildlife and plant species under
certain circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50
CFR 17.62 for endangered plant species, and at 17.72 for threatened
plant species.
It is our policy, as published in the Federal Register on July 1,
1994 (59 FR 34272), to identify to the maximum extent practicable at
the time a species is listed, those activities that would or would not
constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act. The intent of this
policy is to increase public awareness of the effects of a proposed
listing on proposed and ongoing activities within the range of the
species proposed for
[[Page 64870]]
listing. The following activities could potentially result in a
violation of section 9 of the Act; this list is not comprehensive:
Removing and reducing to possession Vandenberg monkeyflower from
areas under Federal jurisdiction; malicious damage or destruction of
Vandenberg monkeyflower from areas under Federal jurisdiction;
unauthorized collecting, handling, possessing, selling, delivering,
carrying, or transport across State lines and import or export across
international boundaries, except for properly documented antique
specimens of these taxa at least 100 years old, as defined by section
10(h)(1) of the Act.
Questions regarding whether specific activities would constitute a
violation of section 9 of the Act should be directed to the Ventura
Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Requests for copies of the regulations concerning listed plants and
general inquiries regarding prohibitions and permits may be addressed
to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered Species Permits,
Regional Recovery Permit Coordinator, Carlsbad Fish and Wildlife
Office, 6010 Hidden Valley Road, Suite 101, Carlsbad, California 92011;
(telephone 760-431-9440 ext. 225; facsimile 760-930-0846).
Peer Review
In accordance with our joint policy on peer review published in the
Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we will seek the expert
opinions of at least three appropriate and independent specialists
regarding this proposed rule. The purpose of peer review is to ensure
that our listing determination is based on scientifically sound data,
assumptions, and analyses. We have invited these peer reviewers to
comment during this public comment period.
We will consider all comments and information received during this
comment period on this proposed rule during our preparation of a final
determination. Accordingly, the final decision may differ from this
proposal.
Public Hearings
Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for one or more public hearings
on this proposal, if requested. Requests must be received within 45
days after the date of publication of this proposed rule in the Federal
Register. Such requests must be sent to the address shown in FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT. We will schedule public hearings on this
proposal, if any are requested, and announce the dates, times, and
places of those hearings, as well as how to obtain reasonable
accommodations, in the Federal Register and local newspapers at least
15 days before the hearing.
Required Determinations
Clarity of the Rule
We are required by Executive Orders 12866 and 12988 and by the
Presidential Memorandum of June 1, 1998, to write all rules in plain
language. This means that each rule we publish must:
(1) Be logically organized;
(2) Use the active voice to address readers directly;
(3) Use clear language rather than jargon;
(4) Be divided into short sections and sentences; and
(5) Use lists and tables wherever possible.
If you feel that we have not met these requirements, send us
comments by one of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. To better help us
revise the rule, your comments should be as specific as possible. For
example, you should tell us the numbers of the sections or paragraphs
that are unclearly written, which sections or sentences are too long,
the sections where you feel lists or tables would be useful, etc.
Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 3501 et seq.)
This rule does not contain any new collections of information that
require approval by OMB under the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44
U.S.C. 3501 et seq.). This rule will not impose recordkeeping or
reporting requirements on State or local governments, individuals,
businesses, or organizations. An agency may not conduct or sponsor, and
a person is not required to respond to, a collection of information
unless it displays a currently valid OMB control number.
National Environmental Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)
We have determined that environmental assessments and environmental
impact statements, as defined under the authority of the NEPA (42
U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be prepared in connection with listing a
species as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act.
We published a notice outlining our reasons for this determination in
the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).
It is our position that, outside the jurisdiction of the U.S. Court
of Appeals for the 10th Circuit, we do not need to prepare
environmental analyses pursuant to NEPA in connection with designating
critical habitat under the Endangered Species Act. We published a
notice outlining our reasons for this determination in the Federal
Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). This position was upheld by
the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit (Douglas County v.
Babbitt, 48 F.3d 1495 (9th Cir. 1995), cert. denied 516 U.S. 1042
(1996)).]
References Cited
A complete list of references cited in this rulemaking is available
on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov at Docket No. FWS-ES-R8-
2013-0078 and upon request from the Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office
(see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Authors
The primary authors of this package are the staff members of the
Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.
Proposed Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, we propose to amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter
I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth below:
PART 17--[AMENDED]
0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 1531-1544; 4201-4245; unless
otherwise noted.
0
2. In Sec. 17.12(h) add an entry for ``Diplacus vandenbergensis
(Vandenberg monkeyflower) to the List of Endangered and Threatened
Plants in alphabetical order under Flowering Plants to read as follows:
Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
[[Page 64871]]
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Species
-------------------------------------------------------- Historic range Family Status When listed Critical Special
Scientific name Common name habitat rules
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Flowering Plants
* * * * * * *
Diplacus vandenbergensis......... Vandenberg U.S.A. (CA)........ Phrymaceae......... E ........... ........... NA
monkeyflower.
* * * * * * *
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Dated: September 30, 2013.
Rowan W. Gould,
Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2013-25397 Filed 10-28-13; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P