Federal Register, Volume 80 Issue 189 (Wednesday, September 30, 2015) 2015 Federal Register, 80 FR 58819-58909; Centralized Library: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service -

[Federal Register Volume 80, Number 189 (Wednesday, September 30, 2015)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 58819-58909]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2015-24305]

[[Page 58819]]

Vol. 80

Wednesday,

No. 189

September 30, 2015

Part II

Department of the Interior

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Fish and Wildlife Service

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50 CFR Part 17

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for 49
Species From the Hawaiian Islands; Proposed Rule

Federal Register / Vol. 80 , No. 189 / Wednesday, September 30, 2015
/ Proposed Rules

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R1-ES-2015-0125; 4500030113]
RIN 1018-BB07

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status
for 49 Species From the Hawaiian Islands

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Proposed rule.

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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), propose to
list 10 animal species, including the band-rumped storm-petrel
(Oceanodroma castro), the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Megalagrion
xanthomelas), the anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris hawaiana), and seven
yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H.
hilaris, H. kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana), and 39 plant species
from the Hawaiian Islands as endangered species under the Endangered
Species Act (Act). If we finalize this rule as proposed, it would
extend the Act's protections to these species.

DATES: We will accept comments received or postmarked on or before
November 30, 2015. Comments submitted electronically using the Federal
eRulemaking Portal (see ADDRESSES, below) must be received by 11:59
p.m. Eastern Time on the closing date. We must receive requests for
public hearings, in writing, at the address shown in FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT by November 16, 2015.

ADDRESSES: You may submit comments by one of the following methods:
(1) Electronically: Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal: http://www.regulations.gov. In the Search box, enter FWS-R1-ES-2015-0125,
which is the docket number for this rulemaking. Then, in the Search
panel on the left side of the screen, under the Document Type heading,
click on the Proposed Rules link to locate this document. You may
submit a comment by clicking on ``Comment Now!''
(2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public
Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R1-ES-2015-0125, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, MS: BPHC, 5275 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, VA 22041-3803.
We request that you send comments only by the methods described
above. We will post all comments on http://www.regulations.gov. This
generally means that we will post any personal information you provide
us (see Public Comments, below, for more information).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Field Supervisor, Pacific Islands Fish
and Wildlife Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Honolulu, HI 96850; by
telephone at 808-792-9400; or by facsimile at 808-792-9581. Persons who
use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Executive Summary

Why we need to publish a rule. Under the Act, if a species is
determined to be an endangered or threatened species throughout all or
a significant portion of its range, we are required to promptly publish
a proposal in the Federal Register and make a determination on our
proposal within 1 year. Listing a species as an endangered or
threatened species can only be completed by issuing a rule.
This rulemaking proposes to list of the 49 species from the
Hawaiian Islands as endangered species. These species are candidate
species for which we have on file sufficient information on biological
vulnerability and threats to support preparation of a listing proposal,
but for which development of a proposed listing rule had been precluded
by other higher priority listing activities. This proposed rule
reassesses all available information regarding status of and threats to
the 49 species.
The basis for our action. Under the Act, we can determine that a
species is an endangered or threatened species based on any of five
factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C)
disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its
continued existence. These 49 species are experiencing population-level
impacts as the result of the following current and ongoing threats:
Habitat loss and degradation due to urbanization;
nonnative, feral ungulates (hoofed mammals, e.g., pigs, goats, deer,
black-tailed deer, mouflon, cattle); nonnative plants; wildfire; and
water extraction.
Predation or herbivory by nonnative, feral ungulates;
rats; slugs; ants; and wasps.
Inadequate existing regulatory mechanisms to prevent the
introduction and spread of nonnative plants and animals.
Stochastic events such as landslides, flooding, drought,
and hurricanes.
Human activities such as recreational use of anchialine
pools, dumping of nonnative fish and trash into anchialine pools, and
manmade structures and artificial lighting.
Vulnerability to extinction due to small numbers of
individuals and occurrences and lack of regeneration.
Competition with nonnative plants and nonnative
invertebrates.
The effects of climate change are likely to exacerbate the impacts
of these threats, and may become a threat in the future.
We will seek peer review. We will seek comments from independent
specialists to ensure that our designation is based on scientifically
sound data, assumptions, and analyses. We will invite these peer
reviewers to comment on our listing proposal. Because we will consider
all comments and information we receive during the comment period, our
final determinations may differ from this proposal.

Information Requested

Public Comments

We intend that any final action resulting from this proposed rule
will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and
be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request
comments or information from the public, including land owners and land
managers, other concerned governmental agencies, the scientific
community, industry, or any other interested parties, concerning this
proposed rule. We particularly seek comments concerning:
(1) The biology, range, and population trends of these species,
including:
(a) Biological or ecological requirements, including habitat
requirements for feeding, breeding, and sheltering;
(b) Genetics and taxonomy;
(c) Historical and current range, including distribution patterns;
(d) Historical and current population levels, and current and
projected trends; and
(e) Past and ongoing conservation measures for these species, their
habitats, or both.
(2) Factors that may affect the continued existence of these
species, which may include habitat modification or destruction,
overutilization, disease, predation, the inadequacy of existing

[[Page 58821]]

regulatory mechanisms, or other natural or manmade factors.
(3) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning
any threats (or lack thereof) to these species and existing regulations
that may be addressing those threats.
(4) Empirical data or other scientific information describing the
specific impacts of climate change on the habitat, life history, and/or
ecology of these species, for example, the species' biological
response, or likely response, to changes in habitat resulting from
climate-change related changes in ambient temperature, precipitation,
drought, storm severity, or sea level.
(5) Additional information concerning the historical and current
status, range, distribution, and population size of these species,
including the locations of any additional populations of these species.
Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as
scientific journal articles or other publications) to allow us to
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Please note that submissions merely stating support for or
opposition to the action under consideration without providing
supporting information, although noted, will not be considered in
making a determination, as section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act (16 U.S.C.
1531 et seq.) directs that determinations as to whether any species is
an endangered or threatened species must be made ``solely on the basis
of the best scientific and commercial data available.''
You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed
rule by one of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES section. We request
that you send comments only by the methods described in the ADDRESSES
section.
If you submit information via http://www.regulations.gov, your
entire submission--including any personal identifying information--will
be posted on the Web site. If your submission is made via a hardcopy
that includes personal identifying information, you may request at the
top of your document that we withhold this information from public
review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We
will post all hardcopy submissions on http://www.regulations.gov.
Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be
available for public inspection on http://www.regulations.gov, or by
appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).

Public Hearing

Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for one or more public hearings
on this proposal, if requested. Requests must be received within 45
days after the date of publication of this proposed rule in the Federal
Register (see DATES, above). Such requests must be sent to the address
shown in the FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section. We will schedule
public hearings on this proposal, if any are requested, and announce
the dates, times, and places of those hearings, as well as how to
obtain reasonable accommodations, in the Federal Register and local
newspapers at least 15 days before the hearing.

Peer Review

In accordance with our joint policy on peer review published in the
Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), during the public
comment period we will seek the expert opinions of appropriate and
independent specialists regarding this proposed rule. The purpose of
peer review is to ensure that our listing determinations are based on
scientifically sound data, assumptions, and analyses. The peer
reviewers have expertise in one or more of the 49 species' biology,
habitat, life-history needs, vulnerability to threats, and other
physical or biological factors.

Previous Federal Action

All 49 species proposed for listing as endangered species are
candidate species (79 FR 72450, December 5, 2014). Candidate species
are those taxa for which the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (we or
Service) has sufficient information on their biological status and
threats to propose them for listing under the Act, but for which the
development of a listing regulation has been precluded to date by other
higher priority listing activities. The current candidate species
addressed in this proposed rule include the following 10 animal
species: The band-rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro), the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Megalagrion xanthomelas), the
anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris hawaiana), and seven yellow-faced
bees, Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H.
kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana; and the following 39 plant species:
Asplenium diellaciniatum (no common name (NCN)), Calamagrostis expansa
(Maui reedgrass), Cyanea kauaulaensis (NCN), Cyclosorus (previously
Christella) boydiae (kupukupu makalii), Cyperus neokunthianus (NCN),
Cyrtandra hematos (haiwale), Deparia kaalaana (NCN), Dryopteris glabra
var. pusilla (hohiu), Exocarpos menziesii (heau), Festuca hawaiiensis
(NCN), Gardenia remyi (nanu), Huperzia stemmermanniae (NCN), Hypolepis
hawaiiensis var. mauiensis (olua), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens
(ohe), Kadua (previously Hedyotis) fluviatilis (kamapuaa, pilo), Kadua
haupuensis (NCN), Labordia lorenciana (NCN), Lepidium orbiculare
(anaunau), Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis (NCN), Myrsine fosbergii
(kolea), Nothocestrum latifolium (aiea), Ochrosia haleakalae (holei),
Phyllostegia brevidens (NCN), Phyllostegia helleri (NCN), Phyllostegia
stachyoides (NCN), Portulaca villosa (ihi), Pritchardia bakeri (Baker's
loulu), Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense (enaena),
Ranunculus hawaiensis (makou), Ranunculus mauiensis (makou), Sanicula
sandwicensis (NCN), Santalum involutum (iliahi), Schiedea diffusa ssp.
diffusa (NCN), Schiedea pubescens (maolioli), Sicyos lanceoloideus
(anunu), Sicyos macrophyllus (anunu), Solanum nelsonii (popolo),
Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii (NCN), and Wikstroemia skottsbergiana
(akia). The candidate status of these species was most recently
reaffirmed in the December 5, 2014, Review of Native Species That Are
Candidates for Listing as Endangered or Threatened (CNOR) (79 FR
72450).
On May 4, 2004, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the
Secretary of the Interior to list 225 species of plants and animals,
including 27 of the 49 candidate species listed above, as endangered or
threatened under the provisions of the Act. Since then, we have
published our annual findings on the May 4, 2004, petition in the CNORs
dated May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24870), September 12, 2006 (71 FR 53756),
December 6, 2007 (72 FR 69034), December 10, 2008 (73 FR 75176),
November 9, 2009 (74 FR 57804), November 10, 2010 (75 FR 69222),
October 26, 2011 (76 FR 66370), November 21, 2012 (77 FR 69994),
November 22, 2013 (78 FR 70104), and December 5, 2014 (79 FR 72450).

Background

Hawaiian Islands Species Addressed in this Proposed Rule

Table 1A (plants) and Table 1B (animals), below, provide the common
name, scientific name, and range (by Hawaiian Island) for the 49
species addressed in this proposed rule.

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Table 1A--Candidate Plant Species Proposed for Listing as Endangered
Species
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Scientific name Common name Hawaiian Island
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Asplenium diellaciniatum...... No common name Kauai.
(NCN).
Calamagrostis expansa......... Maui reedgrass... Hawaii, Maui.
Cyanea kauaulaensis........... NCN.............. Maui.
Cyclosorus boydiae............ kupukupu makalii. Hawaii (H), Maui,
Oahu.
Cyperus neokunthianus......... NCN.............. Maui (H).
Cyrtandra hematos............. haiwale.......... Molokai.
Deparia kaalaana.............. NCN.............. Hawaii (H), Maui,
Kauai (H).
Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla hohiu............ Kauai.
Exocarpos menziesii........... heau............. Hawaii, Lanai (H).
Festuca hawaiiensis........... NCN.............. Hawaii, Maui (H).
Gardenia remyi................ nanu............. Hawaii, Maui,
Molokai, Kauai.
Huperzia stemmermanniae....... NCN.............. Hawaii, Maui (H).
Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. olua............. Maui.
mauiensis.
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ohe.............. Hawaii, Maui,
ascendens. Molokai, Oahu,
Kauai.
Kadua fluviatilis............. kamapuaa, pilo... Oahu, Kauai.
Kadua haupuensis.............. NCN.............. Kauai (H).
Labordia lorenciana........... NCN.............. Kauai.
Lepidium orbiculare........... anaunau.......... Kauai.
Microlepia strigosa var. NCN.............. Hawaii, Maui, Oahu.
mauiensis.
Myrsine fosbergii............. kolea............ Oahu, Kauai.
Nothocestrum latifolium....... aiea............. Maui, Lanai (H),
Molokai, Oahu, Kauai
(H).
Ochrosia haleakalae........... holei............ Hawaii, Maui.
Phyllostegia brevidens........ NCN.............. Hawaii (H), Maui.
Phyllostegia helleri.......... NCN.............. Kauai.
Phyllostegia stachyoides...... NCN.............. Hawaii (H), Maui,
Molokai.
Portulaca villosa............. ihi.............. Hawaii, Maui,
Kahoolawe, Lanai,
Molokai, Oahu (H),
Kaula (H), Lehua
(H), Nihoa (H).
Pritchardia bakeri............ Baker's loulu.... Oahu.
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium enaena........... Maui, Lanai (H),
var. molokaiense. Molokai, Oahu (H).
Ranunculus hawaiensis......... makou............ Hawaii, Maui (H).
Ranunculus mauiensis.......... makou............ Hawaii (H), Maui,
Molokai, Oahu (H),
Kauai.
Sanicula sandwicensis......... NCN.............. Hawaii (H), Maui.
Santalum involutum............ iliahi........... Kauai.
Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa. NCN.............. Maui, Molokai.
Schiedea pubescens............ maolioli......... Maui, Lanai (H),
Molokai.
Sicyos lanceoloideus.......... anunu............ Oahu, Kauai.
Sicyos macrophyllus........... anunu............ Hawaii, Maui (H).
Solanum nelsonii.............. popolo........... Hawaii, Maui (H),
Molokai, Niihau (H),
Pearl & Hermes,
Kure, Midway,
Laysan, Nihoa.
Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii NCN.............. Oahu (H).
Wikstroemia skottsbergiana.... akia............. Kauai.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
(H) = historically known from island, but not observed in the past 20
years.

Table 1B--Candidate Animal Species Proposed for Listing as Endangered
Species
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Common name Scientific name Hawaiian Island
------------------------------------------------------------------------
Band-rumped storm-petrel...... Oceanodroma Hawaii, Maui,
castro. Kahoolawe (H),
Molokai (H), Oahu
(H), Kauai, Lehua.
Yellow-faced bee.............. Hylaeus Hawaii, Maui,
anthracinus. Kahoolawe, Lanai
(H), Molokai, Oahu.
Yellow-faced bee.............. Hylaeus Maui, Kahoolawe,
assimulans. Lanai, Oahu (H).
Yellow-faced bee.............. Hylaeus facilis.. Maui (H), Lanai (H),
Molokai, Oahu.
Yellow-faced bee.............. Hylaeus hilaris.. Maui (H), Lanai (H),
Molokai.
Yellow-faced bee.............. Hylaeus kuakea... Oahu.
Yellow-faced bee.............. Hylaeus longiceps Maui, Lanai, Molokai,
Oahu.
Yellow-faced bee.............. Hylaeus mana..... Oahu.
Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly Megalagrion Hawaii, Maui, Lanai,
xanthomelas. Molokai, Oahu, Kauai
(H).
Anchialine pool shrimp........ Procaris hawaiana Hawaii, Maui.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
(H) = Historically known from the island, but not observed in the last
20 years

The Hawaiian Islands
The State of Hawaii consists of eight ``main'' larger Hawaiian
Islands, and a long chain of older, eroded islands and atolls referred
to as the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). These islands are
formed as the Pacific plate passes over a volcanic ``hot spot,'' an
ongoing process over the last 40 million years (Clague in Juvik and
Juvik 1998, p. 37). The Pacific plate is currently moving northwestward
at about 4 inches (in) (9 centimeters (cm)) per year (Clague in Juvik
and Juvik 1998, p. 38). Each island was formed from eruptions of one or
more volcanoes, over several hundred thousand years, with several
million years passing before activity ended and the volcano became
extinct (Clague in Juvik and Juvik 1998; pp. 38-39). Haleakala volcano,
forming east Maui, last erupted in 1790, and is considered dormant.
Kilauea volcano, on the island

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of Hawaii, has been erupting continuously since 1983. Loihi Seamount,
at 3,200 feet (ft) (975 meters (m)) below sea level, and 19 miles (mi)
(29 kilometers (km)) off Hawaii Islands' southeast coast, has
infrequent eruptions, earthquake swarms nearly every year, and is
destined to emerge as an island within the next 200,000 years (Clague
in Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 45-46).
[GRAPHIC] [TIFF OMITTED] TP30SE15.000

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands extend more than 1,000 mi (1,600
km) beyond Kauai and include (from southeast to northwest) Nihoa Island
(171 acres (ac) (69 hectares (ha))), Necker Island (46 ac (19 ha)),
French Frigate Shoals (an atoll with multiple islets totalling 0.1
square (sq) mi (0.2 sq km)), Gardner Pinnacles (2 islets, 6 ac (2.5 ha)
with 940 sq mi (2,435 sq km) of surrounding reef), Maro Reef (mostly
submerged), Laysan Island (1,016 ac (411 ha)), Lisianski Island (364 ac
(147 ha)), Pearl and Hermes Atoll (submerged reef with 7 sandy islets
totaling 89 ac (36 ha)), Midway Atoll (2.5 sq mi (6 sq km), consisting
of three islands: Sand, Eastern, and Spit), and Kure Atoll (4 sq mi (10
sq km), with two islands: Green and Sand, totaling 213 ac (86 ha))
(Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 304). All of the NWHI except Kure Atoll are
within the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Hawaiian Islands National
Wildlife Refuge or Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. In 2006, all
of the NWHI were designated as the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National
Monument (Monument); in 2010, the Monument was inscribed as a World
Heritage Site. The Monument is managed in partnership by the Department
of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the
Department of the Interior, and the State of Hawaii.
The island of Kauai, the northernmost of the eight main Hawaiian
Islands, is 552 sq mi (1,430 sq km) in area (Foote et al. 1972, p. 3).
Kauai's highest elevations are over 5,000 ft (1,500 m), and the
island's summit is one of the wettest areas on earth, receiving over
400 in (11,278 millimeters (mm)) of annual rainfall. The island is over
5 million years old, and erosion has created dramatic canyons (Waimea
Canyon) and cliffs on the Na Pali Coast. Kauai has been severely
affected by hurricanes, most recently by Hurricane Iniki in 1992. The
privately-owned island of Niihau (43 mi (69 km) southwest of Kauai) was
formed from a single volcanic shield, is slightly younger than Kauai,
and has unique geographic features such as intermittent lakes. Niihau
is relatively arid (20 to 40 in annual rainfall) because it lies in the
rain shadow of Kauai and lacks the elevation needed to intercept moist
air carried by the prevailing northeast trade winds, which would
generate rain if forced to sufficiently high altitude by mountains
(orographic rainfall) (Stearns and McDonald 1947, p. 31). However, Kona
storms (storms from a southerly direction) provide some rainfall.
Although only 1,280 ft (390 m) high, there are precipitous sea cliffs
on the northern coast. Lehua Island (geologically part of Niihau), a
crescent-shaped tuff cone (284 ac (115 ha)), is a Hawaii State Seabird
Sanctuary (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 3-6). Kaula Island (158 ac (64
ha)), also known as Kaula Rock, is small, crescent-shaped, 550 ft (167
m) high, and lies southwest of Niihau. Currently, Kaula is used for
gunnery and inert ordnance target practice by the U.S. Navy (Harrison
1990, p. 193; Hawaii Range Complex FEIS 2008, p. 3-124).
The island of Oahu (600 sq mi (1,557 sq km)), the third oldest and
third largest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is located southeast
of Kauai and northwest of Molokai (Foote et al. 1972, p. 19; Juvik and
Juvik 1998, p. 7). Two shield volcanoes ceased erupting about 1 to 2
million years ago, forming two mountain ranges, the western Waianae
range and the eastern Koolau range, with a central plateau connecting
them. These mountain ranges are oriented perpendicular to the trade
winds, so that distinctive leeward and windward climates result, with
the arid Waianae range in the rain shadow of the Koolau range, which
receives most of the orographic rainfall (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 7;
Wagner et al. 1999, p. 39). The maximum elevation on Oahu is at the
summit of the Waianae Mountains (4,025 ft (1,225 m)) (Wagner et al.
1999, pp. 39-41). Rainfall on the island ranges from less than 20 in
(500 mm) to more than 250 in (6,350 mm) per year. This island supports
the largest population in

[[Page 58824]]

the State, nearly one million people (World Population Review 2015, in
litt.). The flora and fauna of Oahu have undergone extreme alterations
because of past and present land use and other activities.
The island of Molokai (260 sq mi (673 sq km)), the fifth largest of
the eight main Hawaiian Islands, lies southeast of Oahu. The island is
formed from three shield volcanoes, resulting in the east and west
Molokai Mountains and the Kalaupapa Peninsula (Juvik and Juvik 1998,
pp. 11, 13). The taller and larger east Molokai Mountain rises 4,970 ft
(1,514 m) above sea level and comprises roughly 50 percent of the
island's area (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 11). Precipitous cliffs line
the windward coast and deep valleys dissect the coastal area. Annual
rainfall on the windward side of the island is 75 to more than 150 in
(200 to more than 375 cm) (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 50).
The island of Lanai (140 sq mi (364 sq km)), the sixth largest of
the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is located southeast of Molokai and
southwest of west Maui. Lanai was formed from a single shield volcano
and is located in the rain shadow of the west Maui Mountains (Clague in
Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 42). Lanaihale is the highest point at 3,366
ft (1,027 m), with annual rainfall on the summit of 30 to 40 in (76 to
100 cm). Annual rainfall is much less, 10 to 20 in (25 to 50 cm), over
the rest of the island (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 56).
The island of Maui (729 sq mi (1,888 sq km)), the second largest of
the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is located southeast of Molokai and
northwest of Hawaii Island (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14). It arose from
two shield volcanoes resulting in formation of the west Maui Mountains,
which are about 1.3 million years old, and the east Maui Mountains
(Haleakala volcano), about 750,000 years old (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p.
14), which are connected by the central Maui isthmus. The highest point
on west Maui is Puu Kukui at 5,788 ft (1,764 m), which receives 400 in
(1,020 cm) rainfall per year (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14; Wagner et
al. 1999, p. 41). East Maui's Haleakala volcano last erupted only 200
years ago and is considered dormant (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14).
Haleakala is higher in elevation (10,023 ft (3,055 m)) than Puu Kukui,
and since it is geologically younger, lacks the diverse vegetation of
the older west Maui Mountains. Annual rainfall is about 35 in (89 cm)
at the highest elevations, above the trade wind inversion, resulting in
a dry cinder desert (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 55). Lower
elevations on windward east Maui receive as much as 404 in (1,026 cm)
annual rainfall (Giambelluca et al. 2013, p. 1).
The island of Kahoolawe (45 sq mi (116 sq km)), the smallest of the
eight main Hawaiian Islands, is located south of east Maui, and was
formed from a single shield volcano (Clague in Juvik and Juvik 1998, p.
42; Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 7, 16). The maximum elevation on
Kahoolawe is 1,476 ft (450 m) at the summit of Puu O Moaula Nui (Juvik
and Juvik 1998, pp. 15-16). Kahoolawe is in the rain shadow of
Haleakala and is arid, receiving no more than 25 in (65 cm) of rainfall
annually (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 16; Mitchell et al. 2005, p. 6-66).
The island was inhabited as early as 400 A.D., with small fishing
villages established along the coast. It was used briefly as a penal
colony, for grazing by sheep and goats, and for cattle ranching, until
1941, when the United States declared martial law throughout Hawaii,
leading to the use of the island as a training ground and bombing range
(Kahoolawe Island Reserve Commission (KIRC) 2015, in litt.). In 1990,
the island was placed under the administration of the Kahoolawe Island
Reserve Commission. The grazing, ranching, and bombing activities had a
serious impact on the environment, resulting is substantial loss of
soil through accelerated erosion (KIRC 2015, in litt.). After an
extensive 10-year cleanup by the U.S. Navy, unexploded ordnance remains
on one-third of the island, including surrounding waters (KIRC 2015, in
litt.).
The island of Hawaii, the largest, highest, and youngest of the
eight main Hawaiian Islands, is also the easternmost and southernmost
island in the chain. At 4,038 sq mi (10,458 sq km), it comprises
approximately two-thirds of the land area of the State of Hawaii,
giving rise to its common name, the ``Big Island.'' Five large shield
volcanoes make up the island: Mauna Kea at 13,796 ft (4,205 m) and
Kohala at 5,480 ft (1,670 m), both extinct volcanoes; Hualalai at 8,270
ft (2,520 m), a dormant volcano; and Mauna Loa (13,677 ft (4,169 m))
and Kilauea (4,093 ft (1,248 m)), both active volcanoes (McDonald et
al. 1990, pp. 345-379; 59 FR 10305, March 4, 1994; U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) 2012, pp. 1-2). Hawaii Island has a greater range of
climatic zones than any other island in the State, with the highest and
lowest temperatures, and coastal to alpine ecosystems (Juvik and Juvik
1998, p. 22; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 38; The Nature Conservancy of
Hawaii (TNCH) 2007). The windward slopes receive the most rainfall, but
orographic effects cause drier conditions to prevail in the leeward
saddle area and in high-elevation areas. The west, or leeward, side of
the island (Kona) is in the rain shadow of the mountains, but does
receive convection-driven rainfall in the afternoons, resulting in
greater than expected annual rainfall (50 to more than 100 in (127 to
254 cm)), which supports mesic forest (Mitchell et al. 2005, pp. 6-71-
6-91).

An Ecosystem-Based Approach To Assessing the Conservation Status of the
49 Species in the Hawaiian Islands

In this document, we have analyzed the threats to each of the 49
species individually to determine the appropriate status of each
species on its own merits under the Act. However, because many of these
species, and particularly those that share the same habitat types
(ecosystems), share a similar suite of threats, we have organized the
49 species addressed in this proposed rule by common ecosystem for
efficiency, to reduce repetition for the reader, and to reduce
publication costs.
In addition, as an ancillary benefit of assessing the threats to
the 49 species using shared ecosystems as an organizational tool, we
have laid the groundwork for better addressing threats to these
species, should they be listed. In the Hawaiian Islands, native species
occurring in the same habitat types depend on many of the same physical
and biological features and the successful functioning of specific
ecosystems to survive. Because species that share ecosystems face a
suite of shared threats, managing or eliminating these threats
holistically at an ecosystem level is more cost effective and should
lead to better resource protection for all native species. This
approach is in accord with the primary stated purpose of the Act (see
section 2(b)): ``to provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which
endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved.''
On all the main Hawaiian Islands, vegetation on land with rich
soils was cultivated and altered by the early Hawaiians and, more
recently, converted to commercial agricultural and urban use (Gagne and
Cuddihy 1999, p. 45). Intentional and inadvertent introduction of alien
plant and animal species has also contributed to the reduction in range
of native vegetation. Throughout this proposed rule, the terms
``alien,'' ``feral,'' ``nonnative,'' and ``introduced'' all refer to
species that are not native to the Hawaiian Islands. Most of the
candidate species included in this proposed rule persist on steep
slopes,

[[Page 58825]]

precipitous cliffs, valley headwalls, and other regions where
unsuitable topography has prevented urbanization and agricultural
development, or where inaccessibility has limited encroachment by
nonnative plant and animal species.
Each of the 49 Hawaiian Islands species is found in one or more of
the 11 ecosystems types described in this proposed rule: anchialine
pool, coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane wet,
montane mesic, montane dry, subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff (see
Table 2).

Table 2--The 49 Hawaiian Islands Species and the Ecosystems Upon Which They Depend
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Island
Species -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hawaii Maui Kahoolawe Lanai Molokai Oahu Kauai Niihau Lehua Kaula NWHI
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Plants:
Asplenium diellaciniatum.. ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ ................ MM.............. ....... ....... ....... .......
Calamagrostis expansa..... MW............... MW............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Cyanea kauaulaensis....... ................. LW............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Cyclosorus boydiae........ LW............... LW, MW........... .............. ................ ................ MW.............. ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Cyperus neokunthianus..... ................. LW............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Cyrtandra hematos......... ................. ................. .............. ................ MW.............. ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Deparia kaalaana.......... LM, LW........... LM, LW........... .............. ................ ................ ................ LM, LW.......... ....... ....... ....... .......
Dryopteris glabra var. ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ ................ MW.............. ....... ....... ....... .......
pusilla.
Exocarpos menziesii....... LM............... ................. .............. LM.............. ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
MM...............
MD...............
Festuca hawaiiensis....... MD............... MD............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Gardenia remyi............ LM, LW........... LW............... .............. ................ LM, LW.......... ................ LM, LW.......... ....... ....... ....... .......
Huperzia stemmermanniae... MW............... MW............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. ................. MW............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
mauiensis.
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. LW, MW........... LW MW............ .............. ................ LW, MW.......... LW, MW.......... LM, MW, MM...... ....... ....... ....... .......
ascendens.
Kadua fluviatilis......... ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ LW.............. LM.............. ....... ....... ....... .......
Kadua haupuensis.......... ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ ................ LM.............. ....... ....... ....... .......
Labordia lorenciana....... ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ ................ MM.............. ....... ....... ....... .......
Lepidium orbiculare....... ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ ................ LM.............. ....... ....... ....... .......
Microlepia strigosa var. MW, MM........... MW............... .............. ................ ................ LM.............. ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
mauiensis.
Myrsine fosbergii......... ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ LM, LW.......... LM, LW, MW...... ....... ....... ....... .......
Nothocestrum latifolium... ................. LD, LM, DC....... .............. LD, LM, DC...... LM.............. LD, LM, DC...... DC.............. ....... ....... ....... .......
Ochrosia haleakalae....... LM, LW........... LM, MM, DC....... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Phyllostegia brevidens.... MW............... LW, WC........... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Phyllostegia helleri...... ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ ................ LW, MW, WC...... ....... ....... ....... .......
Phyllostegia stachyoides.. MW, MM........... MW, MM........... .............. ................ MW.............. ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Portulaca villosa......... C, LD, MD........ C, LD............ C, LD......... LD.............. LD.............. C, LD........... ................ ....... C...... C...... C
Pritchardia bakeri........ ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ LM.............. ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Pseudognaphalium ................. C................ .............. C............... C............... C............... ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
sandwicensium var.
molokaiense.
Ranunculus hawaiensis..... MM, MD, SA....... SA............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Ranunculus mauiensis...... MM, MD........... MW, MM, WC....... .............. ................ MW, MM, WC...... MW.............. MW, MM.......... ....... ....... ....... .......
Sanicula sandwicensis..... MM, MD, SA....... MM, SA........... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Santalum involutum........ ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ ................ LM, LW.......... ....... ....... ....... .......
Schiedea diffusa ssp. ................. LW, MW........... .............. ................ MW.............. ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
diffusa.
Schiedea pubescens........ ................. LW, MM, WC....... .............. WC.............. LW, MW, WC...... ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Sicyos lanceoloideus...... ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ LM, DC.......... LM, MM.......... ....... ....... ....... .......
Sicyos macrophyllus....... MM, MD........... MW............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
Solanum nelsonii.......... C................ C................ .............. ................ C............... ................ ................ C...... ....... ....... C
Stenogyne kaalae ssp. ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ LW.............. ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
sherffii.
Wikstroemia skottsbergiana ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ ................ LW.............. ....... ....... ....... .......
Animals:
Band-rumped storm-petrel DC............... DC, WC........... C............. ................ C............... C............... DC, WC.......... ....... C...... ....... .......
(Oceanodroma castro).
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus C, LD............ C, LD............ LD............ LD.............. C............... C............... ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
anthracinus).
Yellow-faced bee Hylaeus ................. C, LD............ C............. LD.............. ................ C, LD........... ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
assimulans).
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus ................. C, LM............ .............. LD, LM.......... C............... C, LD, LM....... ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
facilis).
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus ................. C, LD............ .............. C............... C............... ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
hilaris).
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ LM.............. ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
kuakea).
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus ................. C, LD............ .............. C, LD........... C, LD........... C............... ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
longiceps).
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus ................. ................. .............. ................ ................ LM.............. ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
mana).
Orangeblack Hawaiian AP, C *.......... AP, LD *......... .............. C,* LM *........ C,* LD *........ LM *............ C * LD,* LM *... ....... ....... ....... .......
damselfly (Megalagrion
xanthomelas).
Anchialine pool shrimp AP............... AP............... .............. ................ ................ ................ ................ ....... ....... ....... .......
(Procaris hawaiana).
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
C = Coastal ecosystem; MW = Montane Wet ecosystem; DC = Dry Cliff ecosystem; LD = Lowland Dry ecosystem; MM = Montane Mesic ecosystem; WC = Wet Cliff ecosystem; LM = Lowland Mesic ecosystem;
MD = Montane Dry ecosystem; AP = Anchialine Pool ecosystem; LW = Lowland Wet ecosystem; SA = Subalpine ecosystem; * = with species-specific water pool or pond.

Hawaiian Islands Ecosystems

Eleven distinct ecosystems (anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry,
lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane mesic, montane wet, montane dry,
subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff) on the main eight Hawaiian Islands
and NWHI currently harbor or historically harbored one or more of the
49 species under consideration for listing as endangered in this
proposed rule. These ecosystems are described below.
Anchialine Pool
The anchialine pool ecosystem is found on Oahu, Molokai, Maui,
Kahoolawe, and Hawaii Island. Anchialine pools are land-locked bodies
of water that have indirect underground connections to the sea and show
tidal fluctuations in water level. These pools are mixohaline
(brackish), with salinities typically ranging from 2 parts per thousand
(ppt) to concentrations just below that of sea water (32 ppt), although
some pools are recorded as having salinities as high as 41 ppt
(Maciolek 1983, pp. 607-612; Brock et al. 1987, p. 200). Because all
anchialine pools occur within coastal areas, they are technically part
of the coastal ecosystem (see below) with the same

[[Page 58826]]

climate conditions and many of the same applicable and overlapping
habitat threats. However, we are addressing this ecosystem separately
because of the uniqueness of the anchialine pools and the biota that
occurs within them.
Over 80 percent of the State's anchialine pools are found on the
island of Hawaii, with a total of approximately 600 to 650 pools
distributed over 130 sites along all but the island's northernmost and
steeper northeastern shorelines. On east Maui, eight locations along
the north and south coasts have anchialine pools (some containing more
than one pool, e.g., the anchialine pool system at Ahihi-Kinau Natural
Area Reserve (NAR) consists of dozens of pools) (The Nature Conservancy
(TNC) 2009, pp. 2-3). Characteristic animal species within the
anchialine pool ecosystem include crustaceans (e.g., shrimps, prawns,
amphipods, and isopods), molluscs (e.g., snails, sea slugs, and
bivalves), and other invertebrates adapted to the pools' surface and
subterranean habitats (TNC 2009, pp. 1-3). Generally, vegetation within
the pools consists of various types of algal forms (blue-green, green,
red, and golden-brown). The majority of Hawaii's anchialine pools occur
in bare or sparsely vegetated lava fields, although some pools occur in
areas with various ground cover, shrub, and tree species (Chai et al.
1989, pp. 2-24; Brock 2004, p. 35). The anchialine pool shrimp,
Procaris hawaiana, and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, Megalagrion
xanthomelas, which are proposed for listing as endangered species in
this rule, are reported currently or historically from this ecosystem
on Maui and Hawaii Island (Kensley and Williams 1986, pp. 417-437;
Hawaii Biodiversity and Mapping Program (HBMP) 2010).
Coastal
The coastal ecosystem is found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands
and the NWHI, with the highest native species diversity in the least
populated areas and associated islets. The coastal ecosystem includes
mixed herblands, shrublands, and grasslands, from sea level to 980 ft
(300 m) elevation, generally within a narrow zone above the influence
of waves to within 330 ft (100 m) inland, sometimes extending farther
inland if strong prevailing onshore winds drive sea spray and sand
dunes into the lowland zone (TNCH 2006). The coastal ecosystem is
typically dry, with annual rainfall of less than 20 in (50 cm);
however, windward rainfall may be high enough (up to 40 in (100 cm)) to
support mesic-associated and sometimes wet-associated vegetation (Gagne
and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 54-66). Biological diversity is low to moderate
in this ecosystem, but may include some specialized plants and animals
such as nesting seabirds, the endangered plant Sesbania tomentosa
(ohai) (TNCH 2006), and endangered birds in the NWHI (e.g., the Nihoa
finch (Telespyza ultima) on Nihoa Island). The following plants
proposed as endangered in this rule are reported currently or
historically from this ecosystem: Portulaca villosa (Hawaii Island,
Maui, Kahoolawe, Oahu, Lehua, and Kaula), Pseudognaphalium
sandwicensium var. molokaiense (Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu), and
Solanum nelsonii (Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, Niihau, and the NWHI)
(TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). The following animals proposed as endangered in
this rule are reported currently or historically from this ecosystem:
the band-rumped storm-petrel (Kahoolawe, Molokai, Oahu, and Lehua);
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Hawaii Island, Lanai, and Molokai); the
yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus (Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai,
and Oahu), H. assimulans (Maui, Kahoolawe, and Oahu), H. facilis (Maui,
Molokai, and Oahu), H. hilaris (Maui, Lanai, and Molokai), and H.
longiceps (Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu).
Lowland Dry
The lowland dry ecosystem is found on all the main Hawaiian Islands
and includes shrublands and forests generally below 3,300 ft (1,000 m)
elevation that receive less than 50 in (130 cm) annual rainfall, or are
in otherwise prevailingly dry substrate conditions that range from
weathered reddish silty loams to stony clay soils, rocky ledges with
very shallow soil, or relatively recent little-weathered lava (Gagne
and Cuddihy 1999, p. 67). Areas consisting of predominantly native
species in the lowland dry ecosystem are now rare and are best
represented on the leeward sides of the islands (Gagne and Cuddihy
1999, p. 67; TNCH 2006). Native biological diversity is low to moderate
in this ecosystem, and includes specialized animals and plants such as
the Hawaiian owl (pueo) and Santalum ellipticum (iliahialoe, coastal
sandalwood) (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 1220-1221; TNCH 2006). The
following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule
reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Nothocestrum latifolium (Maui, Lanai, and Oahu) and Portulaca villosa
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu). The
following animals proposed for listing as endangered in this rule
reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are: the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Maui, Molokai), the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus (Hawaii Island, Maui, Kahoolawe, and Lanai), H.
assimulans (Maui, Lanai, and Oahu), H. facilis (Lanai and Oahu), H.
hilaris (Maui), and H. longiceps (Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) (TNCH 2007;
HBMP 2010).
Lowland Mesic
The lowland mesic ecosystem is found on all the main Hawaiian
Islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau, and includes a variety of
grasslands, shrublands, and forests, generally below 3,300 ft (1,000 m)
elevation, that receive between 50 and 75 in (130 and 190 cm) annual
rainfall (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 75; TNCH 2006). Native biological
diversity is high in this system (TNCH 2006). The following plants
proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or
historically from this ecosystem are: Deparia kaalaana (Hawaii Island,
Maui, and Kauai), Exocarpos menziesii (Hawaii Island and Lanai),
Gardenia remyi (Hawaii Island, Molokai, and Kauai), Joinvillea
ascendens ssp. ascendens (Kauai), Kadua fluviatilis (Kauai), K.
haupuensis (Kauai), Lepidium orbiculare (Kauai), Microlepia strigosa
var. mauiensis (Oahu), Myrsine fosbergii (Oahu and Kauai), Nothocestrum
latifolium (Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu), Ochrosia haleakalae
(Hawaii Island and Maui), Pritchardia bakeri (Oahu), Santalum involutum
(Kauai), and Sicyos lanceoloideus (Oahu and Kauai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP
2010). The following animals proposed for listing as endangered in this
rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are: the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Lanai, Oahu), and the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus facilis (Maui, Lanai, and Oahu), H. kuakea (Oahu), and H. mana
(Oahu).
Lowland Wet
The lowland wet ecosystem is generally found below 3,300 ft (1,000
m) elevation on the windward sides of the main Hawaiian Islands, except
for Kahoolawe and Niihau (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 85; TNCH 2006).
These areas include a variety of wet grasslands, shrublands, and
forests that receive greater than 75 in (190 cm) annual rainfall, or
are in otherwise wet substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This system is
best developed in wet valleys and slopes on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui,
and Hawaii Island (TNCH 2006). Native biological diversity is high in
this system (TNCH 2006). The following

[[Page 58827]]

plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported
currently or historically from this ecosystem are: Cyanea kauaulaensis
(Maui), Cyclosorus boydiae (Hawaii Island and Maui), Cyperus
neokunthianus (Maui), Deparia kaalaana (Hawaii Island, Maui, and
Kauai), Gardenia remyi (Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai),
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens (Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and
Oahu), Kadua fluviatilis (Oahu), Myrsine fosbergii (Oahu and Kauai),
Ochrosia haleakalae (Hawaii Island), Phyllostegia brevidens (Maui), P.
helleri (Kauai), Santalum involutum (Kauai), Schiedea diffusa ssp.
diffusa (Maui), S. pubescens (Maui and Molokai), Stenogyne kaalae ssp.
sherffii (Oahu), and Wikstroemia skottsbergiana (Kauai) (TNCH 2007;
HBMP 2010).
Montane Wet
The montane wet ecosystem is composed of natural communities
(grasslands, shrublands, forests, and bogs) at elevations between 3,300
and 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall is
greater than 75 in (190 cm) (TNCH 2006). This system is found on all of
the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe (TNCH 2006).
Native biological diversity is moderate to high (TNCH 2006). The
following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule
reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Calamagrostis expansa (Hawaii Island and Maui), Cyclosorus boydiae
(Maui and Oahu), Cyrtandra hematos (Molokai), Dryopteris glabra var.
pusilla (Kauai), Huperzia stemmermanniae (Hawaii Island and Maui),
Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis (Maui), Joinvillea ascendens ssp.
ascendens (Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai), Microlepia
strigosa var. mauiensis (Hawaii Island and Maui), Myrsine fosbergii
(Kauai), Phyllostegia brevidens (Hawaii Island), P. helleri (Kauai), P.
stachyoides (Hawaii Island, Maui, and Molokai), Ranunculus mauiensis
(Maui, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai), Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa (Maui
and Molokai), S. pubescens (Molokai), and Sicyos macrophyllus (Maui)
(TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Montane Mesic
The montane mesic ecosystem is composed of natural communities
(forest and shrublands) found at elevations between 3,300 and 6,500 ft
(1,000 to 2,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall is between 50 and 75
in (130 and 190 cm), or are in otherwise mesic substrate conditions
(TNCH 2006). This system is found on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii
Island (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 97-99; TNCH 2007). Native
biological diversity is moderate, and this habitat is important for
Hawaiian forest birds (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 98-99; TNCH 2006).
The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule
reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are: Asplenium
diellaciniatum (Kauai), Exocarpos menziesii (Hawaii Island), Joinvillea
ascendens ssp. ascendens (Kauai), Labordia lorenciana (Kauai),
Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis (Hawaii Island), Ochrosia haleakalae
(Maui), Phyllostegia stachyoides (Hawaii Island and Maui), Ranunculus
hawaiensis (Hawaii Island), R. mauiensis (Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai,
Kauai), Sanicula sandwicensis (Hawaii Island and Maui), Schiedea
pubescens (Maui), Sicyos lanceoloideus (Kauai), and S. macrophyllus
(Hawaii Island) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Montane Dry
The montane dry ecosystem is composed of natural communities (one
grassland type, shrublands, forests) found at elevations between 3,300
and 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall is
less than 50 in (130 cm), or are in otherwise dry substrate conditions
(TNCH 2006). This system is found on Maui and Hawaii Island, and is
best developed in the saddle region between mountains on Hawaii Island,
with rich native plant communities (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 93-97;
TNCH 2007). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in
this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Exocarpos menziesii (Hawaii Island), Festuca hawaiiensis (Hawaii Island
and Maui), Portulaca villosa (Hawaii Island), Ranunculus hawaiensis
(Hawaii Island), R. mauiensis (Hawaii Island), Sanicula sandwicensis
(Hawaii Island), and Sicyos macrophyllus (Hawaii Island) (TNCH 2007;
HBMP 2010).
Subalpine
The subalpine ecosystem is composed of natural communities
(grasslands, shrublands, forests) at elevations between 6,500 and 9,800
ft (2,000 and 3,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall is seasonal,
between 15 and 40 in (38 and 100 cm), or are in otherwise dry substrate
conditions (TNCH 2006). Native biodiversity is not high in this system,
but contains specialized invertebrates and plants adapted to dry,
exposed conditions (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 107). Because rainfall
is low in this area, fog drip is an important moisture source (Gagne
and Cuddihy 1999, p. 110). The following plants proposed for listing as
endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this
ecosystem are: Ranunculus hawaiensis (Hawaii Island and Maui) and
Sanicula sandwicensis (Hawaii Island and Maui) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Dry Cliff
The dry cliff ecosystem is composed of vegetation communities
occupying steep slopes (greater than 65 degrees) in areas that receive
less than 75 in (190 cm) of annual rainfall, or are in otherwise dry
substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This ecosystem is found on all the
main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau, and is best represented along the
leeward slopes of Lanai, Maui, the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, and Kauai
(TNCH 2006). A variety of shrublands occur within this ecosystem (TNCH
2006). Native biological diversity is low to moderate (TNCH 2006). The
following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule
reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Nothocestrum latifolium (Maui, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai), Ochrosia
haleakalae (Maui), and Sicyos lanceoloideus (Oahu) (TNCH 2007; HBMP
2010). The band-rumped storm-petrel is reported currently or
historically from the dry cliff ecosystem on Hawaii Island, Maui, and
Kauai (TNCH 2007).
Wet Cliff
The wet cliff ecosystem is generally composed of shrublands on
near-vertical slopes (greater than 65 degrees) in areas that receive
more than 75 in (190 cm) annual rainfall, or are in otherwise wet
substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This system is found on all the main
islands except for Niihau and Kahoolawe (TNCH 2006). Native biological
diversity is low to moderate (TNCH 2006). The following plants proposed
for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or
historically from this ecosystem are: Phyllostegia brevidens (Maui), P.
helleri (Kauai), Ranunculus mauiensis (Maui and Molokai), and Schiedea
pubescens (Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). The band-
rumped storm-petrel is reported currently or historically from the wet
cliff ecosystem on Maui and Kauai (TNCH 2007).

Description of the 49 Hawaiian Islands Species

The Act directs us to determine whether any species is an
endangered species or a threatened species because

[[Page 58828]]

of any factors affecting its continued existence. We summarize, below,
the biological condition of, and factors affecting, each of the 49
species to assess whether each species should be listed as endangered
or threatened.
The summaries below include only brief lists of factors affecting
each species. Each of these factors is fully considered, in detail, in
the section ``Summary of Factors Affecting the 49 Species Proposed for
Listing,'' below.

Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment for Hawaiian Plants

Twenty-eight of the plant species proposed for listing and
described below were evaluated for their vulnerability to climate
change as part of a comprehensive vulnerability analysis of native
Hawaiian plants, as indicated in Table 3 (Fortini et al. 2013, 134
pp.). This analysis used ``climate envelopes'' (geographic ranges
encompassing suitable climate for each species, as defined by
temperature and moisture (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 17)) developed from
field records by Price et al. (2012) to project each species' potential
range in the year 2100. The location and spatial extent of these future
ranges, and their overlap with current ranges, allows calculation of a
vulnerability score. Estimates of vulnerability based on climate-
envelope modeling are conservative in that they do not take into
account potential changes in interspecific interactions such as
predation, disease, pollination, or competition. This study provides a
landscape- or island-scale picture of potential climate-change
vulnerability of Hawaiian plants; the results are less clear at finer
spatial scales (Fortini et al. p. 42). However, all 28 of these plant
species scored moderately or highly vulnerable in the analysis because
of their relative inability to exhibit the possible responses necessary
for persistence under projected climate change (Fortini et al. 2013,
134 pp.). These responses include the migration response (dispersal and
establishment in new areas beyond their current distribution), the
microrefugia response (persistence in topographically complex areas
that are less exposed), evolutionary adaptation response (morphological
changes in response to the changing environment), and toleration
response (adaptation to environmental changes through phenotypic
plasticity). Therefore, if the species is moderately to highly
vulnerable, then the likelihood of its persistence with the impacts of
climate change is low, and the environmental changes associated with
climate change are likely to become a threat to these species'
continued existence in the future.

Plants

Asplenium diellaciniatum (no common name (NCN)), a terrestrial or
epipetric (growing on rocks) fern in the spleenwort family
(Aspleniaceae), is endemic to Kauai (Palmer 2003, p. 117). This fern
has extremely variable frond morphology, depending on age, development,
and possibly microhabitat (Wood and Aguraiuja, pers. obs. in Lorence et
al. 2013, p. 167). Stipes (stalks joining the stem to the blade) and
rachis (blade midribs) are black or purple-black to maroon and shiny.
Blade divisions are entire to shallowly or deeply cut into lobes or
twice-divided, with free veins that seldom join to form a vein network
(Lorence et al. 2013, p. 170). Hillebrand (1888, pp. 621-622)
recognized this species as Lindsaya laciniata (Botanischer Garten und
Botanisches Museum (BGBM) 2014, in litt.). Brackenridge also
interpreted Diellia as lindsaeoid (ferns having morphological
characteristics of those in the genus Lindsaea) (1854, pp. 218-220),
followed by other Hawaiian authors, and this fern was described as
Diellia laciniata in Rock (1913, p. 59) and in Wagner (1952, pp. 11,
57-63). Palmer did not recognize D. laciniata as separate from D.
erecta (2003, p. 117). Molecular phylogenetic studies by Schneider et
al. (2005, pp. 455-460) placed Diella within Asplenium, and with
further taxonomic reassessment (Lorence et al. 2013, pp. 167, 170-171),
this species is recognized as Asplenium diellaciniatum. Little is known
of the historical distribution of this species. It was described from a
collection from ``Halemanu,'' the Knudsen homestead area on western
Kauai. This fern is found in the montane mesic ecosystem at Kawaiiki,
approximately 4.5 mi (7 km) southeast of the original collection site
(Palmer 2003, p. 117; HBMP 2010; Lorence et al. 2013, p. 167) in 2
occurrences, once totaling approximately 100 individuals (TNCH 2007;
HBMP 2010; Lorence et al. 2013, p. 167; however, currently, there are
only 31 mature and 9 juvenile individuals (Wood 2013, in litt.; PEPP
2014, p. 33).
Feral pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus
columbianus) modify and destroy the habitat of Asplenium diellaciniatum
on Kauai, with evidence of the activities of these animals reported in
the areas where A. diellaciniatum occurs (HBMP 2010; Wood 2013, in
litt.). Feral pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer may also forage on A.
diellaciniatium (HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game
animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of
ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to
eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.;
Hawaii Administrative Rule--Hawaii Department of Land and Natural
Resources (HAR-DLNR) 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants in the Kawaiiki
area, such as Buddleja asiatica (dog tail), Lantana camara (lantana),
and Sphaeropteris cooperi (Australian tree fern), compete with A.
diellaciniatum and modify and destroy its native habitat, and displace
it and other native Hawaiian plant species by competing for water,
nutrients, light, and space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit
growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987
in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood 2013, in litt.). Additionally,
the small number of individuals of A. diellaciniatum may limit this
species' ability to adapt to environmental change.
The remaining occurrences of Asplenium diellaciniatum and its
habitat for its reintroduction are at risk; A. diellaciniatum numbers
are observed to be decreasing on Kauai, and both the species and its
habitat continue to be negatively affected by modification and
destruction by ungulates and by direct competition by nonnative plants,
combined with predation by nonnative ungulates. We find that this
species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore,
we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Calamagrostis expansa (Maui reedgrass), a perennial in the grass
family (Poaceae), is known from the islands of Maui and Hawaii
(O'Connor 1999, p. 1509; Wagner and Herbst 2003, p. 59). This species
was described by Hitchcock (1922, p. 148) and is recognized as a
distinct taxon in O'Connor (1999, p. 1509) and in Wagner and Herbst
(2003, p. 59), the most recently accepted taxonomic treatments for this
species. Historically, Calamagrostis expansa was known from wet forest,
open bogs, and bog margins at 17 locations on East Maui, and in a large
occurrence covering nearly the entire summin on West Maui, and was
discovered in 7 occurrences totaling approximately 750 individuals on
the island of Hawaii in 1995 (O'Connor 1999, p. 1509; HBMP 2010;
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) Botany
Collections 2014, in litt.). Currently, this species is known from 13
occurrences totaling fewer than 750 individuals from both islands. On

[[Page 58829]]

the island of Maui, there are 2 occurrences in the west Maui Mountains
(approximately 100 individuals) and 7 occurrences in the east Maui
Mountains (totaling about 200 individuals), in the montane wet
ecosystem (Wood 2005, in litt.; TNCH 2007; Welton 2008 and 2010, in
litt.; Fay 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer 2010 in litt.;
Agorastos 2011, in litt.). On the island of Hawaii, there are 3
occurrences in the Kohala Mountains (totaling approximately 400
individuals) and 1 occurrence of a few individuals in Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park, in the montane wet ecosystem (Perry 2006, in litt.; TNCH
2007; HBMP 2010).
Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of Calamagrostis expansa
on Maui and Hawaii, with evidence of the activities of feral pigs
reported in the areas where C. expansa occurs on east Maui, and on
Hawaii Island in the Kohala Mountains and in the Waiakea Forest Reserve
of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (Hobdy 1996, in litt.; Medeiros 1996,
in litt.; Perlman 1996, in litt.; Wood 1996, in litt.; Perry 2006, in
litt.; HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but
public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to
eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate
herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR
2010, in litt.). Rats have been noted by biologists to affect C.
expansa at Laupahoehoe Natural Area Reserve (NAR) on Hawaii Island, by
consuming seeds (HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants compete with this
species, and modify and destroy native habitat, negatively affecting C.
expansa on east and west Maui and Hawaii Island. Additionally, the
small number of individuals may limit this species' ability to adapt to
environmental change. Climate change may result in alteration of the
environmental conditions and ecosystem that support this species. The
species, which already is affected by multiple stressors, may be unable
to tolerate or adapt to projected changes in temperature and moisture,
or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes
(Fortini et al. 2013, p. 68).
The remaining occurrences of Calamagrostis expansa and habitat for
its reintroduction are at risk; C. expansa populations are decreasing
on Maui and Hawaii Island, and this species continues to be negatively
affected by habitat modification and destruction, and by direct
competition from nonnative plants, combined with herbivory by nonnative
ungulates and rats. The effects of climate change are likely to further
exacerbate these threats. We find that this species should be listed
throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is
unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a
significant portion of its range.
Cyanea kauaulaensis (NCN), a shrub in the bellflower family
(Campanulaceae), is endemic to Maui (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p.
15). This species is 6.5 to 13 ft (2 to 4 m) tall, and is distinguished
from other Cyanea species by its many-branched habit, with branches
often rooting when coming in contact with the soil. Leaves are glabrous
and narrow (2 to 3 in (5 to 7 cm) wide), clustered near the end of the
branches, flowers are white and tubular, and fruit are bright orange
(Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. 15-23). Cyanea kauaulaensis is
recognized as a distinct taxon by Oppenheimer and Lorence (2012, pp.
15-23).
Cyanea kauaulaensis occurs on leeward west Maui, on talus or basalt
boulder-strewn slopes along perennial streams at 2,400 to 3,000 ft (730
to 900 m), in the lowland wet ecosystem (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010;
Oppenheimer and Lorence 2010, pp. 17-18). Associated native species
include those within Metrosideros (ohia) lowland wet forest, with
herbaceous plants, ferns, and some riparian plants (Oppenheimer and
Lorence 2010, pp. 17-18). This species was first collected during a
botanical survey in 1989. Further surveys (in 2008, 2009, and 2011)
revealed more individuals, and study of the collections indicated that
it was a new species of Cyanea. Currently, C. kauaulaensis is known
from Kauaula Valley (approximately 50 individuals) and Waikapu Valley
(12 individuals) (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. 15-16, 20).
The greatest threats to this species currently are the low numbers
of occurrences and individuals, its limited range, poor seedling
recruitment, and loss of pollinators and dispersal agents (Oppenheimer
and Lorence 2012, p. 20). Rats and slugs are noted as a threat to
Cyanea kauaulaensis by herbivory and seed predation (Oppenheimer and
Lorence 2012, p. 20). Additionally, nonnative plants modify and destroy
native habitat and outcompete native species, negatively affecting C.
kauaulaensis and its habitat (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 20).
Although feral ungulates are present on west Maui, the known
occurrences of C. kauaulaensis are likely not at risk from ungulates
because of their location in extremely steep and rugged terrain;
however, because of the terrain, landslides and flooding may impact
this species (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. 20-21). Because of the
threats described above, we find that this species should be listed
throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is
unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a
significant portion of its range.
Cyclosorus boydiae (previously Christella boydiae) (kupukupu
makalii) is a small to medium-sized member of the thelypteroid fern
family (Thelypteridaceae), with reclining or erect stems and a large,
tangled mass of roots that form a holdfast (Pukui and Elbert 1986, p.
186; Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88). In 1879, Eaton (pp. 361-362) named it for
the original collector, Miss E.S. Boyd, calling it Aspidium (Cyrtomium)
boydiae, for those plants occurring on Oahu. In 1888, Hillebrand (p.
572) described two varieties, A. cyatheoides var. depauperatum,
occurring on the islands of Hawaii and Oahu, and A. cyatheoides var.
exaltatum occurring on Kauai. Iwatsuki moved the two species to the
genus Thelypteris in 1964 (Iwatsuki 1964, p. 28 in Medeiros et al.
1993, pp. 87-88; Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88). In 1999, Wagner (W.H., et
al.) moved the genus Aspidium to Cyclosorus and recognized two
varieties: Cyclosorus variety boydiae on Oahu and Cyclosorus variety
kipahuluensis on Maui (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 153, 156-157). In 2003,
Palmer returned the species to Christella and did not recognize any
varieties (2003, pp. 87-88). Following Smith (et al. 2006, p. 716),
Christella was merged into Cyclosorus. Cyclosorus boydiae is the most
recently accepted scientific name for this fern. Typical habitat for
Cyclosorus boydiae is exposed, rocky, or moss-covered banks of stream
courses in dense-wet Metrosideros-Acacia (ohia-koa) forest, at 4,300 to
4,400 ft (1,300 to 1,350 m), with other native ferns, grasses, and
dwarfed woody species, in the lowland wet and montane wet ecosystems
(Hillebrand 1888, p. 572; Medeiros et al. 1993, p. 87; Wagner (W.H.) et
al. 1999, p. 156; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, this fern was known from near sea level to 4,400 ft
(1,350 m) on Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Hillebrand 1888, p. 572;
Medeiros et al. 1993, pp. 86-87; Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88). Currently,
Cyclosorus boydiae is found only at higher elevations on Oahu and east
Maui, in 7 occurrences totaling approximately 400 individuals (Palmer
2003, pp. 87-88; Oppenheimer 2008, in litt.; Fay 2010, in litt.; HBMP
2010; Welton 2010, in litt.). On east Maui, there are 5 occurrences
(approximately 360 individuals) in the lowland wet and

[[Page 58830]]

montane wet ecosystems, and on Oahu, there are 2 occurrences in the
Koolau Mountains in the montane wet ecosystem, totaling 40 individuals
(Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88; Wood 2007, in litt.; Kam 2008, in litt.;
Oppenheimer 2008 and 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Welton 2010, in litt.;
Ching 2011, in litt.). The historical occurrence of C. boydiae on the
island of Hawaii was found in the lowland wet ecosystem (HBMP 2010).
Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of Cyclosorus boydiae on
Maui and Oahu, with evidence of the activities of feral pigs reported
at three occurrences of C. boydiae on east Maui and at two occurrences
on Oahu. However, on east Maui, two of the five occurrences are
provided protection in Haleakala National Park (Wood 2007, in litt.;
Wood 2013, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Kawelo 2011, in litt.). Ungulates are
managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not
adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat
modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these
animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.).
Historical occurrences of C. boydiae on Oahu have dramatically declined
in numbers or disappeared as a result of habitat alteration, landslides
and flooding, nonnative plant species invading lower elevation stream
courses, and man-made stream diversions (Medeiros et al. 1993, p. 88;
Palmer 2003, p. 88). Nonnative plants such as Tibouchina herbaceae
(glorybush) modify and destroy native habitat of C. boydiae, and
outcompete this and other native species for water, nutrients, light,
and space, or a nonnative plant may produce chemicals that inhibit
growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987
in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood 2013, in litt.). Herbivory by
feral pigs negatively impacts this species (HBMP 2010). Climate change
may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems
that support this species. Cyclosorus boydiae, which already is
affected by multiple stressors, may be unable to tolerate or adapt to
projected changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move
to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p.
72).
The remaining occurrences of Cyclosorus boydiae and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk; C. boydiae populations are decreasing on
Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island, and the species continues to be
negatively affected by habitat loss and destruction by ungulates,
direct competition with nonnative plants, and herbivory by ungulates.
The effects of climate change are likely to further exacerbate these
threats. We find that this species should be listed throughout all of
its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its
range.
Cyperus neokunthianus (NCN) is a perennial plant in the sedge
family (Cyperaceae). Culms are three-sided, 16 to 47 in (40 to 120 cm)
tall, with short and slightly thickened rhizomes. Leaves are shorter
than to as long as the culm, with flat or curved margins and reddish
brown to dark brown sheaths. Inflorescences are umbelliform (with a
short axis), open to moderately dense, bearing numerous spikelets
(flower clusters). Achenes (fruit) are oblong, 3-sided, and about 1 in
(2 mm) long (Koyama 1999, p. 1420).
Cyperus neokunthianus was previously recognized as Mariscus
kunthianus, following the taxonomic treatment of Koyama (1990, p.
1420). In 1997, Strong and Wagner (p. 39) following Tucker (1994, p.
9), and more recently Wagner and Herbst (2003, pp. 52-53; 2012, p. 81),
moved all Hawaiian species of Mariscus to Cyperus, and provides the
most currently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species. Cyperus
neokunthianus occurs in riparian areas of the lowland wet ecosystem on
west Maui (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1420; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, this species is known from Honokohau Falls at 2,800 ft
(854 m) and Waihee Valley (HBMP 2010; Global Biodiversity Information
Facility (GBIF) database 2014). This species was last observed in 1996.
Currently, there are no known individuals in the wild; however, Waihee
Valley and Maui County lands have been suggested as potential habitat
for further surveys (PEPP 2013, p. 32; PEPP 2014, p. 59).
Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of Cyperus neokunthianus
on west Maui, with evidence of the activities of feral pigs reported in
the area where this species was last observed (HBMP 2010). Habitat
modifications resulting from activities of feral pigs that affect C.
neokunthianus include direct destruction of this species and other
native plants, disruption of topsoil leading to erosion, and
establishment and spread of nonnative plants. Ungulates are managed in
Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control
the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and
destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et
al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Additionally, nonnative
plants degrade and destroy native habitat and outcompete native
species, also negatively affecting habitat of C. neokunthianus on west
Maui. Currently, there are no known extant individuals; however, if it
is extant, low numbers make this species more vulnerable to extinction
because of the higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, random
demographic fluctuations, and localized catastrophes.
Habitat for any remaining individuals of Cyperus neokunthianus, and
for its reintroduction, is at risk; the species continues to be
negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by
nonnative animals and plants. We find that this species should be
listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is
unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a
significant portion of its range.
Cyrtandra hematos (haiwale), a shrub in the African violet family
(Gesneriaceae), is endemic to Molokai (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 760,
762). This species is 1 to 6.5 ft (0.3 to 2 m) tall, with minimally
branched stems. The leaves are in whorls of 3 to 4 per node, often
closely spaced and borne on the upper 5 to 8 nodes. Flowers are
solitary, white with a greenish calyx, and narrowly tubular. Flower
stalks are 0.3 to 0.4 in (8 to 10 mm) long, and tubes are about 0.7 in
(18 mm) long (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 760, 762). Cyrtandra hematos is
recognized as a distinct taxon by Wagner et al. (1999, pp. 760, 762),
who provide the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this
species. Cyrtandra hematos occurs in wet forest at 3,400 to 3,800 ft
(1,030 to 1,150 m) on eastern Molokai, in the montane wet ecosystem
(Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 760, 762; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007). Historically,
this species was known from the Olokui Plateau, Kawela, and Kahuoahu
Valley on Molokai (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 760, 762). Currently,
approximately 30 individuals are known from Kapulei, but this
occurrence has not been monitored since 1999 (USFWS Rare Taxon
Database, in litt.).
Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy the habitat of Cyrtandra
hematos on Molokai, with evidence of the activities of these animals
reported in the areas where this species occurs (USFWS Rare Taxon
Database, in litt.). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals,
but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates
to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate
herbivory by these animals

[[Page 58831]]

(Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.).
Additionally, nonnative plants modify and destroy native habitat of C.
hematos and outcompete this and other native species for water,
nutrients, light, and space, or a nonnative plant may produce chemicals
that inhibit growth of other plants (USFWS Rare Taxon Database, in
litt.). This species may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to
low numbers and lack of regeneration, leading to diminished capacity to
adapt to environmental changes, and thereby lessening the probability
of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and
Pilson 1997, p. 361). The reasons for this species' lack of
regeneration in the wild are unknown at this time. Climate change may
result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystem that
support this species. Cyrtandra hematos, which already is affected by
multiple stressors, may be unable to tolerate or adapt to projected
changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas
with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 72).
The remaining occurrences of Cyrtandra hematos and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are restricted to a
small area on Molokai and continue to be negatively affected by habitat
modification and destruction by ungulates, and by direct competition
with nonnative plants combined with predation by nonnative ungulates.
The low number of remaining individuals may limit this species' ability
to adapt to environmental changes. The effects of climate change are
likely to further exacerbate these threats. We find that this species
should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find
that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Deparia kaalaana (NCN), a small, terrestrial fern in the ladyfern
family (Athyraceae), is recognized as a distinct taxon by Palmer (2003,
pp. 109-111) and Christenhusz et al. (2012, p. 16). Fronds (fern
leaves) are 6 to 12 in (15 to 30 cm) long, sometimes bearing plantlets
at the end of the rachis (the midrib of the fern blade, which is the
expanded part of the frond above the stipe). Stipes (the stalk of the
frond joining the stem to the blade) are straw-colored and sparsely
scaly. Blades are oblong-lanceolate, with 9 to 11 pairs of pinnae. This
species is distinguished from D. marginalis by its smaller, short-
stalked and obliquely arranged pinnae, ultimate segments, and veins
(Palmer 2003, pp. 109-111).
This fern is historically known from the islands of Kauai, Maui,
and Hawaii, on rocky stream banks and in wet forest, in the lowland
mesic and lowland wet ecosystems (Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014, p.
103; Palmer 2003, pp. 109-111; PEPP 2014, p. 95; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007).
Deparia kaalaana was presumed extinct on all three islands where it
previously occurred until one individual was discovered on east Maui,
growing along a perennial stream on the western side of a small pool
with other native ferns and herbaceous plants (Oppenheimer and
Bustamente 2014, pp. 103-107; PEPP 2014, p. 95).
Feral pigs modify and destroy habitat of Deparia kaalaana by
facilitating the spread of nonnative plants, which converts vegetation
communities from native to nonnative (Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014,
p. 106; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii
as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the
numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction,
or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in
litt; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants such as Blechnum
appendiculatum (NCN), Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse), Hedychium
gardnerianum (kahili ginger), Prunella vulgaris (selfheal), and Rubus
argutus (prickly Florida blackberry) are capable of displacing all of
the riparian habitat elements, such as native plants, in the area where
D. kaalaana occurs. Nonnative slugs such as Derocerus laevis and Limax
maximus are common in the area and can consume young plants (Joe and
Daehler 2008, pp. 252-253). Climate change may induce frequent and
severe drought or cause extreme flooding events, and may impact the
habitat and D. kaalaana directly (Chu et al. 2010, pp. 4887, 4891,
4898). A single catastrophic event may result in extirpation of the
remaining individual.
The remaining occurrence of Deparia kaalaana and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk, and both the species and its habitat on
Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai continues to be negatively affected by
modification and destruction by nonnative ungulates, and by direct
competition with nonnative plants, combined with herbivory by nonnative
ungulates and slugs. We find that this species should be listed
throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is
unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a
significant portion of its range.
Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla (hohiu) is a small, terrestrial fern
in the wood fern family (Dryopteridaceae). Fronds are 1.5 to 12 in (4
to30 cm) long and densely clustered, with very thin stipes, and fertile
when small. Blades are 2- to 3-pinnate, with winged rachises, and
marginal to submarginal sori (clusters of sporangia, the spore-bearing
(reproductive) structures of ferns, along the blade edge). This species
is recognized as a distinct taxon by Palmer (2003, p. 144). Habitat for
Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla is deep shade on rocky, mossy
streambanks in wet forest at about 4,000 ft (1,200 m), in the montane
wet ecosystem on Kauai (Palmer 2003, p. 144; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, D. glabra var. pusilla was known from the Kawaikoi stream
area (HBMP 2010). Currently, this species is known from fewer than 250
individuals in the Alakai Wilderness Preserve (including the Kawaiko
stream area) on Kauai (National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBG)
Herbarium Database 1995, in litt.; HBMP 2010).
Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla is at risk from habitat degradation
by nonnative plants and feral ungulates, loss of reproductive vigor,
and the species' vulnerability to climate change. Habitat modification
and destruction by nonnative plants and feral ungulates is an ongoing
threat to Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla. Although most individuals
occur in the Alakai Wilderness Preserve, only portions of the Preserve
are fenced to prevent ungulate incursion. Ungulates are managed in
Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control
the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and
destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et
al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). In addition, the limited
number of occurrences and few individuals lead to a diminished capacity
to adapt to environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of
long-term persistence, and a single catastrophic event may result in
extirpation of remaining occurrences. Climate change may result in
alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystem that support
this species. Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla pusilla may be unable to
tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be
unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et
al. 2013, p. 74). Because of these threats, we find that this species
plant should be listed as endangered throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or

[[Page 58832]]

threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Exocarpos menziesii (heau) is shrub in the sandalwood family
(Santalaceae). Individuals are from 2 to 6.5 ft (0.5 to 2 m) tall.
Stems are densely branched toward the ends, with conspicuously maroon-
tinged tips. The leaves are usually scale-like, with occasional
oblanceolate, foliaceous leaves 0.4 to 0.6 in (10 to 14 mm) long.
Flowers are red and drupes are reddish brown to red at maturity, ovoid,
0.3 to 0.4 in (7 to 10 mm) long, with a small terminal beak partially
embedded in a yellow, fleshy, receptacle (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1218).
Exocarpos menziesii is recognized as a distinct taxon by Wagner et al.
(1999, p. 1218), who provide the most recently accepted taxonomic
treatment of this species. This species occurs in Metrosideros
shrubland or drier forest areas, and on lava flows with sparse
vegetation, from 4,600 to 6,900 ft (1,400 to 2,100 m), in the montane
dry ecosystem on the island of Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1218;
TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Historically, this species was also found in the
lowland mesic (Lanai and Hawaii Island) and montane mesic ecosystems
(Hawaii Island) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Exocarpos menziesii is historically known from the island of Lanai
(Kaiholena Gulch) and was formerly more wide-spread on the island of
Hawaii (from Kahuku Ranch in the south to Hualalai and Puukapele on the
leeward slopes) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1218; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Currently, there is 1 scattered occurrence of fewer than 20 individuals
on the slopes of Hualalai and approximately 1,800 individuals in the
U.S. Army's Pohakuloa Training Area (PTA) on the island of Hawaii (PEPP
2013, pp. 10, 33; Thomas 2014, in litt.; Evans 2015, in litt.). There
are no known occurrences of this species on Lanai today.
Feral goats, mouflon, and sheep modify and destroy the habitat of
Exocarpos menziesii on Hawaii Island, with evidence of the activities
of these animals reported in the areas where this species occurs (USFWS
Rare Taxon Database 2015, in litt.). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as
game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the
numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction,
or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in
litt; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Feral ungulate management is
incorporated into the U.S. Army's PTA management plan. These plants are
provided some protection within fenced management units in the training
area; however, feral goats are still being removed from within the
fenced area (Evans 2015, in litt.; Nadig 2015, in litt.). Any
individuals of E. menziesii outside of fenced exclosures or outside of
the managed area are at risk. Occurrences and numbers of individuals
have declined on the island of Hawaii (HBMP 2010; Thomas 2014, in
litt.), once widely distributed from the south to the west sides of the
island, and are now restricted to two locations;, consequently E.
menziesii may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to reduced
levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt
to environmental changes, thereby reducing the probability of long-term
persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p.
361; HBMP 2010). Fire is a potential threat to this species; although
the U.S. Army has constructed firebreaks and has standard operating
procedures in place for prevention and suppression of wildfires at PTA,
wildfires may encroach from other areas (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in
litt.). The small number of individuals outside the occurrence at PTA
may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental change.
Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions
and ecosystems that support this species. Exocarpos menziesii may be
unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture,
or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes
(Fortini et al. 2013, p. 76).
The remaining occurrences of Exocarpos menziesii and suitable
locations for reintroductions are at risk from habitat modification and
destruction; from herbivory, by feral goats, mouflon, and sheep; and
from the small number of remaining occurrences. Fire is a potential
threat to this species. The effects of climate change are likely to
exacertbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this
species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore,
we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Festuca hawaiiensis (NCN) is a cespitose (growing in tufts or
clumps) annual in the grass family (Poaceae) (O'Connor 1999, p. 1547).
This species has numerous erect culms (stems or stalks) 2 to 5 ft (0.5
to 1.5 m) tall, branching above the base, which are glabrous to
slightly hairy. Sheaths are open and blades are flat and smooth, 10 to
16 in (25 to 40 cm) long, and 0.1 to 0.5 in (0.3 to 1 cm) wide.
Branched inflorescences are composed of 6 to 8 alternate racemes (many
flowers on one branch), with a flattened rachis (main axis) with flat
hairs. The fruits are ellipsoid, dorsally compressed, and approximately
0.2 in (5 mm) long (O'Connor 1999, p. 1547). Festuca hawaiiensis was
treated by Hillebrand (1888, pp. 534-535) as an introduced species, F.
drymeia; however, F. hawaiiensis is currently recognized as a distinct
taxon in O'Connor (1999, p. 1547), the most recently accepted Hawaiian
plant taxonomy.
Typical habitat for this species is dry forest at 6,500 ft (2,000
m), in the montane dry ecosystem (O'Connor 1999, p. 1547).
Historically, F. hawaiiensis occurred at Hualalai and Puu Huluhulu on
the island of Hawaii, and possibly at Ulupalakua on Maui; however, it
is no longer found at these sites (O'Connor 1999, p. 1547). Currently,
F. hawaiiensis is only known from PTA on the island of Hawaii (HBMP
2010). These remaining four occurrences are within an area of less than
10 square miles (26 square kilometers) and total approximately 1,500
individuals (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in litt.; Evans 2015, in litt.).
Habitat destruction by feral goats, sheep, and mouflon is a threat
to the habitat of Festuca hawaiiensis. These ungulates browse on native
plants such as grasses, and likely browse on F. hawaiiensis. Ungulates
are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not
adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat
modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these
animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.).
Feral ungulate management is incorporated into the U.S. Army's PTA
management plan. These plants are provided some protection within
fenced management units in the training area; however, goats were
recently removed from within fenced areas (Evans 2015, in litt.; Nadig
2015, in litt.). Any individuals of F. hawaiiensis outside of fenced
exclosures or outside of the managed area are at risk. Nonnative
plants, such as Cenchrus setaceus (Pennisetum setaceum, fountain
grass), are naturalized in the area, and outcompete F. hawaiiensis and
other native plants. Occurrences and numbers of individuals are
declining on the island of Hawaii, and F. hawaiiensis likely
experiences reduced reproductive vigor due to reduced levels of genetic
variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental
changes, thereby reducing the probability of long-term persistence
(Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP
2010).

[[Page 58833]]

Fire is a potential threat to this species, especially because of the
ingress of nonnative grass species. Although the U.S. Army has
constructed firebreaks and has standard operating procedures in place
for prevention and suppression of wildfires at PTA, fires may encroach
from other areas, exacerbated by fuel loads provided by nonnative
grasses (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in litt.). Climate change may result
in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that
support this species. Festuca hawaiiensis may be unable to tolerate or
respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to
move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013,
p. 76).
The remaining occurrence of Festuca hawaiiensis and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk; F. hawaiiensis occurences have decreased on
Hawaii Island, as it no longer occurs at Hualalai and Puu Huluhulu, and
the species may be extirpated from Maui. This species continues to be
negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by
ungulates and by direct competition with nonnative plants, combined
with herbivory by ungulates, especially on Maui. Fire is a potential
threat to the species and its habitat. The effects of climate change
are likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because of these
threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of
its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its
range.
Gardenia remyi (nanu) is a tree in the coffee family (Rubiaceae).
This species is 10 to 43 ft (3 to 13 m) tall with branches that are
quadrangular and covered with fine, short, sticky hairs. Leaves are
clustered towards the tips of the branches, broadly elliptic to ovate,
4 to 10 in (9 to 24 cm) long, 2 to 4 in (5 to 10 cm) wide, with a
glabrous upper surface and dull lower surface. Flowers are fragrant,
solitary, with a 6- to 8-lobed white corolla. Fruit are orange, round
to ellipsoid, 1 in (3 cm) in diameter, with small seeds (Wagner et al.
1999, p. 1133). Gardenia remyi was described by Mann (1867, p. 171).
This species is recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner et al. (1999,
p. 1133), which provides the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment
of this species. Typical habitat for G. remyi is mesic to wet forest at
190 to 2,500 ft (60 to 760 m), in the lowland mesic (Kauai, Molokai,
and Hawaii Island) and lowland wet ecosystems (Kauai, Molokai, Maui,
and Hawaii Island) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1133; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, this species was found on the island of Hawaii at Wao
Kele O Puna NAR, Waiakea Forest Reserve (FR), Pahoa, and Hakalau Nui.
On Maui, this species was known from Wailuaiki and Waikamoi in the
Koolau FR, and from Papaaea and Kipahulu. On Molokai, this species was
known from Keopukaloa, Pukoo, Honomuni, Halawa, and Kaluaaha (HBMP
2010). On Kauai, this species ranged across the island, and was known
from Halelea, Kealia, Moloaa, and Lihue-Koloa FRs, including Hanakapiai
Valley, Mahaulepu, and east Wahiawa Bog. Currently, Gardenia remyi is
known from 19 occurrences totaling approximately 90 individuals on the
islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai (Wood 2005, in litt.;
Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in
litt.; Agorastos 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Perlman 2010, in litt.). On
Hawaii, individuals occur in Puu O Umi NAR (12), Wao Kele O Puna (3),
Waiakea FR (1), and in Kohala NAR (1 individual in poor health and
threatened by habitat modification and destruction and competition with
Melastoma sp.). On east Maui, there is 1 individual at Kipahulu, and on
west Maui, there are 2 individuals at Honokohau drainage, an occurrence
of 21 individuals at Honolua peak, and 9 individuals at Honokohau-
Hononana ridge (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; Welton 2009, in litt.).
The number of individuals in the Molokai FR declined from 20 to 4 over
a period of 5 years (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.). Currently, on
Molokai, there are 2 individuals within the Molokai FR, 1 individual at
Manuahi ridge, and possibly 1 remaining individual at Mapulehu. On
Kauai there are 6 individuals at Limahuli, 14 at Kalalau, 1 at
Puuauuka, 2 at Puu Kolo, 1 at Waioli Valley, 1 at Kahili, and 6 at
Waipa (NTBG 2008, in litt; Perlman 2010, in litt.).
Habitat modification and destruction by feral pigs, goats, and deer
negatively affects Gardenia remyi and areas for its reintroduction
(Perry, in litt. 2006; PEPP 2008, p. 102; HBMP 2010). Feral pigs and
signs of their activities have been reported at occurrences of G. remyi
in the Kohala Mountains and at Wao Kele O Puna on the island of Hawaii;
the Halelea and Lihue-Koloa FRs on Kauai; the West Maui FR and West
Maui NAR, and the Puu Kukui Preserve on Maui; and the Molokai FR. Goats
and signs of their activities are reported at the occurrences of G.
remyi on the island of Kauai at the Kalalau Valley, and on the island
of Molokai in Pelekunu Preserve and the Molokai FR. Axis deer and signs
of their activities are reported at the occurrences of G. remyi in the
Molokai FR (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by these ungulates is a likely threat
to G. remyi, as they browse on leaves and other parts of almost any
woody or fleshy plant species. Nonnative plants modify and destroy
native habitat of G. remyi and outcompete this and other native plant
for water, nutrients, light, and space, in areas where G. remyi occurs
on Hawaii Island, Kauai, Maui, and Molokai (Oppenheimer 2006, pers.
comm.; Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010).
Landslides are a threat to the occurrences and habitat of G. remyi
ranging from Honopue to Waipio in the Kohala Mountains on Hawaii Island
(Perry 2006, in litt.). Lack of pollination was suggested as the cause
for abortion of immature fruits that were seen among plants at Wao Kele
O Puna FR on the island of Hawaii (PEPP 2010, p. 73). Similarly,
Agorastos (2011, in litt.) reported no viable seed production in the
wild or within ex situ collections at Volcano Rare Plant Facility and
no recruitment in the wild among the 14 individuals observed on the
island of Hawaii, for unknown reasons. Predation of seeds by rats is
reported as a threat to individuals on Kauai (NTBG 2008, in litt.).
Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions
and ecosystems that support this species. Gardenia remyi may be unable
to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may
be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al. 2013, p. 76).
The remaining occurrences of Gardenia remyi and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk. Gardenia remyi continues to be negatively
affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, and by
direct competition from nonnative plants, combined with herbivory by
ungulates and seed predation by rats. Natural events such as landslides
are a threat to occurrences on the island of Hawaii. Pollination and
seed production are observed to be limited. Low numbers of individuals
(90 total individuals distributed across 4 islands) makes this species
more vulnerable to extinction because of the higher risks from genetic
bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, and localized
catastrophes. The effects of climate change are likely to exacerbate
these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this species
should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find
that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.

[[Page 58834]]

Huperzia stemmermanniae (NCN) is an epiphytic, hanging fir-moss (a
fern ally) in the club moss family (Lycopodiaceae). Sterile stem bases
are unforked or once-forked, short, usually less than 6 in (15 cm)
long, green to pale yellow, with fertile terminal strobili (fertile
leaves). The strobili fork at an acute angle and the branches are
usually straight (Palmer 2003, pp. 257-259). Huperzia stemmermanniae
was first described as Phlegmariurus stemmermanniae by Medeiros and
Wagner (Medeiros et al. 1996, pp. 90-96). Kartesz (1999, in NatureServe
Explorer 2014, in litt.) moved the species to the genus Huperzia.
Currently this species is recognized as a distinct taxon in the latest
treatment (Palmer 2003, pp. 257-259). This species is epiphytic on
rough bark of living trees or fallen logs in Metrosideros polymorpha-
Acacia koa forest on east Maui and the island of Hawaii, at 3,200 to
3,800 ft (975 to 1,160 m), in the montane wet ecosystem (Medeiros et
al. 1996, p. 93; Palmer 2003, pp. 257, 259; TNCH2007; HBMP 2010). There
is little information available on the historical range of this
species. Huperzia stemmermanniae was first collected in 1981, from two
occurrences totaling 10 individuals in Laupahoehoe NAR on the island of
Hawaii, and was mistakenly identified as H. mannii (Medeiros et al.
1996, p. 93; HBMP 2010). Currently, approximately 30 individuals occur
in the Laupahoehoe area on the island of Hawaii. One individual
occurred in Kaapahu Valley on east Maui, but this individual has not
been relocated since 1995 (Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.;
HBMP 2010; Conry 2012, in litt.).
Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle modify and destroy the
habitat of Huperzia stemmermanniae on Maui, and feral pigs modify and
destroy the habitat of this species on Hawaii Island (Medeiros et al.
1996, p. 96; Wood 2003, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs,
goats, cattle, and axis deer is a potential threat to H.
stemmermanniae. Nonnative plants modify and destroy the forest habitat
that supports the native species upon which this epiphytic plant grows,
and drought may also negatively affect this species and its habitat
(Medeiros et al. 1996, p. 96; Perry 2006, in litt.; HBMP 2010).
Huperzia stemmermanniae may experience reduced reproductive vigor due
to reduced levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished
capacity to adapt to environmental changes, thereby lessening the
probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4;
Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010). Climate change may result
in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that
support this species. Huperzia stemmermanniae may be unable to tolerate
or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to
move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013,
p. 77).
The remaining occurrences of Huperzia stemmermanniae and habitat
for its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are
restricted to a small area on Hawaii Island, and this species continues
to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by
ungulates. The low numbers of individuals H. stemmermanniae may reduce
the probability of its long-term persistence. The effects of climate
change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because of these
threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of
its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its
range.
Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis (olua) is a small terrestrial
member of the bracken fern family (Dennstaedtiaceae), and is recognized
as a distinct taxon by Palmer (2003, pp. 168-169). This variety is a
miniature form of H. hawaiiensis. Fronds are 2.5 to 10 in (6 to 25 cm)
long; rhizomes are slender, 0.04 to 0.1 in (1 to 3 mm) in diameter; and
parts are covered with chainlike, acute-tipped, tan hairs. Fronds are
fully fertile at their smallest size (Palmer 2003, pp. 168-169).
Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis occurs in mesic and wet forest,
but predominately in the montane wet ecosystem (Palmer 2003, pp. 168-
170). This species is historically known from Eke Crater, Kapunakea,
and Puu Kukui, on west Maui (Palmer 2003, pp. 168-170). Currently, 5 to
10 individuals are known from openings between bogs above 5,000 ft on
west Maui, and a few individuals occur at Hanawi on east Maui (Maui Nui
Task Force (MNTF) 2010, in litt.).
Nonnative plants modify and destroy the habitat of Hypolepis
hawaiiensis var. mauiensis on east and west Maui (HBMP 2010; MNTF 2010,
in litt.). Nonnative plants also displace this and other native
Hawaiian plant species by competing for water, nutrients, light, and
space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other
plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and
Stones 1990, p. 74; MNTF 2010). This fern may experience reduced
reproductive vigor due to low numbers of individuals, leading to
diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, and thereby
lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn
1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate change may result
in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that
support this species. Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis may be
unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture,
or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes
(Fortini et al. 2013, p. 78).
The remaining occurrences of Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. Nonnative plants modify
and destroy native habitat, and also outcompete native Hawaiian plants.
This variety is moderately vulnerable to the impacts of climate change,
and the small number of remaining individuals may limit this variety's
ability to adapt to environmental change. Because of these threats, we
find that this plant should be listed throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens (ohe) is an erect, perennial
herb in the Joinvillea family (Joinvilleaceae) (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
1450). This subspecies is 5 to 16 ft (2 to 5 m) tall. Leaf blades are
narrowly elliptic, up to 32 in (80 cm) long and 6 in (16 cm) wide. Both
leaf surfaces have scattered bristles, with the lower surface also
sparsely to moderately pubescent. Fruit are 0.2 in (6 mm) in diameter
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1450). Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens was
described by Brongniart and Gris (Brongniart 1861, pp. 264-269), and is
recognized as a distinct taxon by Wagner et al. (1999, pp. 1450-1451),
who provide the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this
subspecies. Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens occurs in wet to mesic
Metrosideros polymorpha-Acacia koa lowland and montane forest, and
along intermittent streams, at 1,000 to 4,300 ft (305 to 1,300 m); in
the lowland mesic (Kauai), lowland wet (Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii
Island), montane wet (Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island),
and montane mesic ecosystems (Kauai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, this subspecies was found in widely distributed
occurrences on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii
Island (HBMP 2010). On Kauai, this subspecies was wide-ranging across
the mountains and into coastal areas (HBMP 2010). On Oahu,

[[Page 58835]]

this subspecies was known from the summit area of the Waianae
Mountains, and ranged along the entire length of the Koolau Mountain
range. On Molokai, this subspecies was known from the eastern half of
the island ranging from Pelekunu Preserve and east to Halawa Valley. On
west Maui, it occurred in the summit area, and on east Maui, it ranged
on the northeastern side from the Koolau FR south to Kipahulu Valley.
On Hawaii Island, it occurred almost island-wide. Currently, Joinvillea
ascendens ssp. ascendens is still found on the same islands, in 56
occurrences totaling approximately 200 individuals (HBMP 2010; Conry
2012, in litt.). On Kauai, this subspecies is no longer known from the
east and south side of the island (since the 1930s), but there are
approximately 10 known occurrences on the north side of the island. On
Oahu, this subspecies no longer occurs in the southern Koolau Mountains
(range reduction since the 1930s), about 12 of the 20 known occurrences
remain, with the range and numbers of occurrences remaining about the
same (6) in the Waianae Mountains. On east Maui, the known occurrences
have decreased from 12 to 4 (since the 1980s); on west Maui, 1 formerly
large occurrence has decreased to approximately 40 individuals (since
1980), with 1 other occurrence approximately 2 mi to the east. On
Molokai, the number of occurrences has increased to 20, but these are
restricted to a much smaller central area of the island (range
reduction since the 1930s). On Hawaii Island, the known occurrences
have decreased from 17 locations to 2 since the 1950s (HBMP 2010; Oahu
Task Force Meeting (OTFM) 2014, in litt.).
Nonnative ungulates modify and destroy habitat on all of the
islands where Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens occurs (Oppenheimer
2006, pers. comm.; Moses 2006, in litt.; Welton and Haus 2008, p. 16;
HBMP 2010; Perlman 2010, in litt.). Herbivory by feral pigs, goats,
deer, and rats is a likely threat to this species. Many nonnative plant
species modify and destroy habitat, and outcompete this subspecies
(HBMP 2010). Randomly occurring natural events, such as landslides, are
a likely threat to the occurrences of J. ascendens ssp. ascendens on
Kauai and Molokai (HBMP 2010). Fire is a potential threat to this
species in the drier areas of the Waianae Mountains of Oahu (HBMP
2010). This subspecies is usually found as widely separated
individuals. Seedlings have rarely been observed in the wild, and,
although mature seeds germinate in cultivation, the seedlings rarely
survive to maturity, with a loss of individuals through attrition. It
is uncertain if this rarity of reproduction is typical, or if it is
related to habitat disturbance (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1451). Climate
change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and
ecosystems that support this species. Joinvillea ascendens ssp.
ascendensascendens may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in
temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more
suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 76).
The remaining occurrences of Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals
continue to be negatively affected by habitat modification and
destruction by ungulates, compounded with possible herbivory by
ungulates and rats. The small number of remaining individuals, smaller
distribution, and poor recruitment in the wild may limit this
subspecies' ability to adapt to environmental changes. Because of these
threats, we find that this subspecies should be listed throughout all
of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its
range.
Kadua fluviatilis (previously Hedyotis fluviatilis) (kamapuaa,
pilo) is a climbing shrub in the coffee family (Rubiaceae) family.
Plants are foetid when bruised. Stems are cylindrical and slightly
flattened, 1 to 8 ft (0.3 to 3 m) long, with short lateral branches.
Leaves are widely spaced, papery, elliptic-oblanceolate to elliptic-
lanceolate, 3 to 7 in (8 to 17 cm) long, and 1 to 2 in (3 to 5 cm)
wide. White flowers are fleshy and waxy, with several small, sac-like
glands between corolla lobes. Capsules are woody, strongly quadrangular
or winged, 0.5 in (1 cm) long, and 0.5 in (1 cm) in diameter. Seeds are
translucent reddish brown, wedge-shaped, and minutely reticulate
(netted) (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 1142-1144). First described as Kadua
fluviatilis by Forbes (1912, p. 6), this species was moved to the genus
Hedyotis by Fosberg (1943, p. 90), and was recognized as a distinct
taxon in Wagner et al. (1999, pp. 1142-1144). Terrell et al. (2005, pp.
832-833) placed Hedyotis fluviatilis in synonymy with Kadua
fluviatilis, the earlier, validly published name, and this is the
currently accepted scientific name. Typical habitat for this species on
Kauai is mixed native shrubland and Metrosideros forest at 750 to 2,200
ft (230 to 680 m), in the lowland mesic ecosystem (TNCH 2007; HBMP
2010), and in open shrubland with sparse tree cover in the lowland
mesic ecosystem (Wood 1998, in litt.; TNCH 2007). On Oahu, K.
fluviatilis occurs along rocky streambanks in wet Metrosideros forest
from 820 to 1,990 ft (250 to 607 m) in the lowland wet ecosystem (HBMP
2010; TNCH 2007).
Historically, Kadua fluviatilis was known from the island of Kauai
in at least 5 occurrences ranging from the north coast across the
central plateau to the south coast, and from the island of Oahu in at
least 11 occurrences in the northern Koolau Mountains, ranging from
Koloa Gulch to Waipio (HBMP 2010). Currently, this species is known
from only 11 occurrences totaling between 400 and 900 individuals on
the islands of Kauai and Oahu (Wood 2005, p. 7; NTBG 2009, in litt.;
HBMP 2010). On Kauai, K. fluviatilis is known from two locations:
Hanakapiai on the north coast and Haupu Mountain on the south coast. On
Oahu, K. fluviatilis is no longer found in the most northern and
southern historical locations in the Koolau Mountains, and currently
ranges in the north from Kaipapau to Helemano (HBMP 2010; U.S. Army
database 2014).
Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy habitat of Kadua
fluviatilis (HBMP 2010). Evidence of the activities of feral pigs has
been reported at the Hanakapiai and Haupu occurrences on Kauai, and at
all of the Oahu occurrences (Wood 1998, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Feral
goats and evidence of their activities have been observed at Hanakapiai
on Kauai (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs and goats is a likely
threat to K. fluviatilis. Nonnative plants modify and destroy native
habitat of K. fluviatilis and outcompete this and other native species
for water, nutrients, light, and space, or a nonnative plant may
produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp.
180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood
1998, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Kadua fluviatilis is negatively affected by
landslides on Kauai (HBMP 2010). Climate change may result in
alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support
this species. Kadua fluviatilis may be unable to tolerate or respond to
changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas
with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 78).
The remaining occurrences of Kadua fluviatilis and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk. Numbers of occurrences and individuals are
decreasing on Oahu and Kauai, from 16 occurrences to 11, and from over
1,000 individuals to between 400 and 900

[[Page 58836]]

individuals (HBMP 2010; Oahu Task Force Meeting 2014, in litt.). This
species continues to be negatively affected by habitat modification and
destruction by feral pigs and goats, stochastic events such as
landslides, and direct competition from nonnative plants, combined with
herbivory by nonnative ungulates. Climate change is likely to further
exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this
species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore,
we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Kadua haupuensis (NCN) is a shrub in the coffee family (Rubiaceae).
This species is subdioecious (male and female flowers on separate
plants, with sporadic hermaphroditic flowers), 3 to 5 ft (1 to 1.5 m)
tall, with erect, brittle stems and glabrous branchlets with minutely
hairy nodes. Older branches are brown with longitudinally fissured
bark. Leaves are oblong to lanceolate or lanceolate-ovate and glabrous
or sparsely hairy, 1 to 5 in (3 to 12 cm) long and 0.4 to 1 in (1 to
3cm) wide, with conspicuous reticulate veins. Petioles are narrowly
winged. Flowers are white or greenish-white with a purple tint. Fruit
capsules produce numerous brown or blackish seeds (Lorence et al. 2010,
pp. 137-144). Kadua haupuensis is recognized as a distinct taxon by
Lorence et al. (2010, pp. 137-144). There is no historical information
for this species as it was recently discovered and described (Lorence
et al. 2010, pp. 137-144). Kadua haupuensis was discovered in 2007,
just below and along cliffs in an isolated area on the north face of
Mt. Haupu, on southern Kauai, from 980 to 1,640 ft (300 to 500 m), in
the lowland mesic ecosystem (TNCH 2007; Lorence et al. 2010, pp. 137-
144). Currently, there are no known extant individuals of K. haupuensis
in the wild; however, there are 11 individuals of this species
propagated from collections from the wild plants.
Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of Kadua haupuensis on
Kauai (Lorence et al. 2010, p. 140). Predation of fruits and seeds by
rats is a potential threat. Landslides are an additional threat to this
species at its last known occurrence. Nonnative plants such as
Caesalpinia decapetala (wait-a-bit) and Passiflora laurifolia (yellow
granadilla), and various grasses that modify and destroy native habitat
and outcompete native plants are found at the last known location of K.
haupuensis. The small number of remaining individuals in propagation,
and no known remaining wild individuals, may limit this species'
ability to adapt to environmental change. Because of these threats, we
find that K. haupuensis should be listed throughout all of its range,
and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Labordia lorenciana (NCN) is a small tree in the Logania family
(Loganiaceae). Individuals are 10 to 13 ft (3 to 4 m) tall. The bark is
grayish brown and mottled white or dark brown. Leaves are opposite,
chartaceous (papery), and hairy. Flowers, functionally unisexual, are
green, forming unbranched cymes. Fruit mature to brown capsules 1 to
1.5 in (25 to 37 mm) with ellipsoid 0.08 to 0.12 in (2 to 3 mm) seeds
(Wood et al. 2007, pp. 195-197). Labordia lorenciana was discovered and
validated by Wood et al. (2007, pp. 195-199). This species occurs on
the island of Kauai at 3,800 ft (1,160 m), in forest in the montane
mesic ecosystem (Wood et al. 2007, pp. 197-198). Currently, there are
four known individuals in Kawaiiki Valley. Additional surveys for L.
lorenciana have not been successful; however, experts believe this
species may occur in other areas (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198).
Labordia lorenciana is at risk from habitat modification and
destruction and herbivory by nonnative mammals, displacement of
individuals through competition with nonnative plants, stochastic
events, and potential problems associated with small populations. Feral
pigs and goats modify and destroy the habitat of Labordia lorenciana
(Wood et al. 2007, p. 198). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game
animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of
ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction by these
animals. Predation of seeds by rats is a likely threat to this species
(Wood et al. 2007, p. 198). Competition with nonnative plant species,
including Lantana camara, Passiflora tarminiana (banana poka), Psidium
cattleianum (strawberry guava), and Rubus argutus, is a threat to L.
lorenciana, as these nonnative plants have the ability to spread
rapidly and cover large areas in the forest understory, and can
outcompete native plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987
in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood et al. 2007, p. 198). Randomly
occurring natural events, such as landslides, flash floods, fallen tree
limbs, and fire, are a likely threat to L. lorenciana where it occurs
on Kauai (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198). This species may experience
reduced reproductive vigor as there is no in situ seedling recruitment
and a very small number of individuals remain (Wood et al. 2007, p.
198). Because of these threats, we find that L. lorenciana should be
listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is
unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a
significant portion of its range.
Lepidium orbiculare (anaunau) is a small, many-branched shrub in
the mustard family (Brassicaceae). Individuals are 2 to 4 ft (0.6 to 1
m) tall (St. John 1981, pp. 371-373; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 409).
Glabrous leaves are thin and crowded at the stem apex, not very fleshy
and usually elliptical, occasionally lanceolate or oblanceolate, 3 to 7
in (6 to 17 cm) long, with rounded serrate margins. White flowers are
in indeterminate racemes with branches subtended by linear, leaf-like
bracts (1 in (2 cm)) long, with fine, short hairs. Seeds are reddish
brown, orbicular (the name L. orbiculare is in reference to the seed
shape) with pale, membranous-winged margins (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
409; St. John 1981, pp. 371-373). Lepidium orbiculare was resurrected
from synonymy with L. serra and is recognized as a distinct taxon by
Wagner and Herbst (2003, p. 13). This species occurs in mesic forest on
Mt. Haupu, on the island of Kauai, in the lowland mesic ecosystem
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 409; HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 34; TNCH 2007).
Historically, Lepidium orbiculare species was known from widely
scattered occurrences on Kauai (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 409). Currently,
there is one occurrence of fewer than 50 individuals at Mt. Haupu
(Wagner et al. 2012, p. 19; PEPP 2014, p. 34; Smithsonian Institution
2015, in litt.).
Feral pigs have been documented to modify and destroy habitat of
other rare and endangered native plant species at the same location on
Mt. Haupu, Kauai (Lorence et al. 2010, p. 140); therefore, we consider
that activities of feral pigs also pose a threat to Lepidium
orbiculare. Nonnative plants degrade native habitat and outcompete
native plants, are found at the last known location of L. orbiculare.
Landslides are an additional threat to this species. Lepidium
orbiculare may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to reduced
levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt
to environmental changes, and thereby lessening the probability of
long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson
1997, p. 361; PEPP 2014, p. 34).
The remaining occurrence of Lepidium orbiculare and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk; the species continues to be negatively
affected by habitat modification and destruction by

[[Page 58837]]

feral pigs, and by direct competition from nonnative plants. Natural
events such as landslides are a threat to the only known occurrence of
the species (HBMP 2010). The small number of individuals may limit this
species' ability to adapt to environmental change. Because of these
threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of
its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its
range.
Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis (NCN) is a terrestrial, medium-
sized fern in the bracken fern family (Dennstaedtiaceae), with fronds
to 40 in (100 cm) long. This variety is extremely hairy, with the
stipes, rachises (midribs), costae (frond rib), and entire fronds
covered with uniform, jointed hairs with pointed tips. The rachises are
often zigzag (Palmer 2003, p. 186). This fern was originally described
as Microlepia mauiensis by Wagner (1993, pp. 73-75) from a collection
made at Hanaula, west Maui. In the most recent treatment of all
Hawaiian ferns, Palmer (2003, p. 186) recognizes this entity as an
endemic variety of the indigenous Microlepia strigosa. Typical habitat
for Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis is mesic to wet forest at 1,400
to 6,000 ft (425 to 1,830 m), in the lowland mesic (Oahu), montane
mesic (Hawaii Island), and montane wet (Maui and Hawaii Island)
ecosystems (Palmer 2003, p. 186; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Little is known
of the historical locations of Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis;
however, it had a wide range on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu
(HBMP 2010). Currently, Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis is known
most recently from nine occurrences totaling fewer than 100 individuals
on the islands of Oahu (15 to 20 individuals), Maui (fewer than 20
individuals last observed in 2007), and Hawaii (35 individuals last
observed in 2004) (Palmer 2003, p. 186; Lau 2007, pers. comm.;
Oppenheimer 2007 and 2008, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; Ching 2011,
in litt.).
Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis is highly threatened by habitat
modification and destruction by feral pigs and goats (Oppenheimer 2007,
in litt.; Bily 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs is a
likely threat to M. strigosa var. mauiensis (Oppenheimer 2007, in
litt.; Bily 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants degrade
habitat and outcompete M. strigosa var. mauiensis on Maui (Oppenheimer,
in litt. 2007). Hybridization with other varieties of Microlepia is a
threat to this species on Oahu that is compounded by the low number of
individuals (Kawelo 2010, in litt.). Climate change may result in
alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support
M. strigosa var. mauiensis. This variety may be unable to tolerate or
respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to
move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013,
p. 82), and the effects of climate change are likely to exacerbate the
threats listed above. Because of those threats, we find that this plant
should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find
that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Myrsine fosbergii (kolea) is a branched shrub or small tree in the
myrsine family (Myrsinaceae). This species is 7 to 13 ft (2 to 4 m)
tall, with dark reddish brown, glabrous branches and glabrous, narrowly
elliptic leaves clustered at the tips of the branches (dark green with
dark purple bases). Flowers are perfect or possibly unisexual
(dioecious), arising on short woody knobs among the leaves. Drupes are
purplish black, globose, 0.2 to 0.4 in (6 to 9 mm) in diameter (Wagner
et al. 1999, p. 940). Myrsine fosbergii was described by Hosaka (1940,
pp. 46-47). This species is recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner et
al. (1999, p. 40), Wagner and Herbst (2003, p. 35), and Wagner et al.
(2012, p. 53), the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this
species. There is some question whether individuals found on Kauai are
in fact M. fosbergii; if they are not, this species would be endemic to
Oahu, with fewer than 50 known individuals (Lau 2012, pers. comm. in
Conry 2012, in litt.). Typical habitat for Myrsine fosbergii on Oahu is
Metrosideros-mixed native shrubland, at 2,200 to 2,800 ft (670 to 850
m) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 940; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007). Typical habitat
on Kauai is Metrosideros-Diospyros (ohia-lama) lowland mesic forest and
Metrosideros-Cheirodendron (ohia-olapa) montane wet forest, often on
watercourses or stream banks, at 900 to 4,300 ft (270 to 1,300 m), in
the lowland mesic, lowland wet, and montane wet ecosystems (TNCH 2007;
HBMP 2010; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 53).
Myrsine fosbergii was historically known from the Koolau Mountains
of Oahu at the Puu Lanihuli and Kuliouou summit ridges (HBMP 2010).
This species was never observed or collected on Kauai before 1987, but
is assumed to have been there historically. Currently, M. fosbergii is
known from 14 occurrences, totaling a little more than 100 individuals.
On Oahu, there are widely scattered occurrences along the Koolau
Mountains summit ridge (48 individuals) (lowland mesic and lowland wet
ecosystems) (HBMP 2010). On Kauai, this species was once widely
scattered in the northwest and central areas, but is currently known
from only 55 remaining individuals in those same areas (Wood 2005 and
2007, in litt.; HBMP 2010).
Myrsine fosbergii is at risk from habitat modification and
destruction by nonnative plants and animals; herbivory by feral pigs
and goats; the displacement of individuals through competition with
nonnative plants for space, nutrients, water, air, and light; and the
low number of individuals. On Oahu, evidence of the activities of feral
pigs has been reported at all summit populations (HBMP 2010). On Kauai,
evidence of the activities of feral pigs has been reported at the
centrally located occurrences (Wood 2005 and 2007, in litt.; HBMP
2010), and evidence of the activities of feral goats has been reported
at the north-central occurrences (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs
and goats is a likely threat to M. fosbergii (Wood 2005 and 2007, in
litt.; HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants compete with M. fosbergii, and
modify and destroy its native habitat on Oahu and Kauai (HBMP 2010).
The small number of remaining individuals may limit this species'
ability to adapt to environmental change. Climate change may result in
alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support
this species. Myrsine fosbergii may be unable to tolerate or respond to
changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas
with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 82). The
effects of climate change are likely to further exacerbate the threats
listed above. Because of these threats, we find that M. fosbergii
should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find
that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Nothocestrum latifolium (aiea) is a small tree in the nightshade
family (Solanaceae). Individuals are 33 ft (10 m) tall, with a gnarled
trunk, rigid ascending branches, and young parts with yellowish-brown
pubescence. The thick, pubescent leaves, usually clustered toward the
ends of the branches, are seasonally deciduous. Flowers occur in
clusters on short spurs and have a greenish-yellow corolla with the
corolla tube about twice as long as the calyx. Berries are yellowish-
orange, succulent, and depressed-globose (Symon 1999, p. 1263).
Nothocestrum

[[Page 58838]]

latifolium was described by Gray (1862). This species is recognized as
a distinct taxon in Symon (1999, p. 1263), the most recently accepted
taxonomic treatment of this species.
Typical habitat for this species is dry to mesic forest in the dry
cliff (Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, and Maui), lowland dry (Oahu, Lanai, and
Maui), and lowland mesic (Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui) ecosystems
(TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Historically, Nothocestrum latifolium was known
from Waieli, Kaumokuni, and Kupehau gulches, and Makua Valley, in the
Waianae Mountains of Oahu; the Kawela and Kapaakea gulches on Molokai;
from Koele, Kaohai, and Maunalei Valleys on Lanai; and from the
southwest rift zone of Haleakala on Maui (HBMP 2010). This species was
never observed or collected on Kauai before 1986, but is assumed to
have been there historically, and the current status of this individual
is unknown. On the island of Oahu, there is one individual in Manuwai
Gulch, one individual at Kaluaa could not be relocated, and the three
individuals located at west Makaleha were found to have died (Moses
2006, in litt.; Starr 2006, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.;
HBMP 2010; Kawakami 2010, in litt.; Kawelo 2010, in litt.; Welton 2010,
in litt.; Ching 2011, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2011, in litt.). On
Molokai, at least four individuals were observed in 2009, above
Makolelau; however, their current status is unknown (Moses 2006, in
litt.). There are 18 occurrences totaling approximately 1,600
individuals on east and west Maui (Ching 2011, in litt.). One
occurrence on east Maui is the largest, consisting of as many as 1,500
individuals (HBMP 2010). On Lanai, none of the individuals in the
occurrence near the State Cooperative Game Management Area at Kanepuu
could be relocated in 2011 (Duvall 2011, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2011, in
litt.). Also on Lanai, no individuals within the Kanepuu Preserve
(Kahue Unit) were found during surveys in 2012, although there are
plans to continue surveying the area and other suitable habitat (PEPP
2012, p. 129). The species' range on each island has decreased
dramatically since 2001 (Kawelo 2005 and 2010, in litt.; Oppenheimer
2011, in litt.; HBMP 2010).
Feral pigs (Oahu, Maui, Kauai), goats (Maui, Kauai), mouflon and
sheep (Lanai), axis deer (Lanai, Maui), and black-tailed deer (Kauai)
modify and destroy habitat of Nothocestrum latifolium (HBMP 2010).
Herbivory by these animals also poses a threat to this species.
Nonnative plants outcompete N. latifolium, and modify and destroy
habitat at all known occurrences. Fire is a potential threat to this
species. Low numbers of individuals may limit this species' ability to
adapt to environmental change. Climate change may result in alteration
of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this
species (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 83), and the effects of climate change
are likely to further exacerbate the threats listed above.
Additionally, for unknown reasons, there is an observed lack of
regeneration in N. latifolium in the wild (HBMP 2010). Because of these
threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of
its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its
range.
Ochrosia haleakalae (holei), a tree in the dogbane family
(Apocynaceae), is 7 to 27 ft (2 to 8 m) tall. The elliptic leaves are
clustered three or four per node. Tubular white flowers occur in
relatively open inflorescences. Robust, ovoid drupes are yellow or
plum-colored, streaked with brown, and often have irregular ridges at
maturity due to differential thickening of the exocarp (outermost layer
of the fruit) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 218). Ochrosia haleakalae was
described by St. John (1978, pp. 199-220). This species is recognized
as a distinct taxon in Wagner et al. (1999, p. 218), the most recently
accepted taxonomic treatment of this species. Typical habitat for this
species is dry to mesic forest, sometimes wet forest, and often lava,
at 2,300 to 4,000 ft (700 to 1,200 m), in the dry cliff (Maui), lowland
mesic (Maui and Hawaii Island), lowland wet (Hawaii Island), and
montane mesic (Maui) ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 218; HBMP 2010;
TNCH 2007). On east Maui, this species occurs in diverse mesic forest
(Medeiros et al. 1986, pp. 27-28; TNCH 2007; Medeiros 2007, in litt.).
On the island of Hawaii, O. haleakalae is known from gulches and
valleys in the Hamakua district and from Metrosideros polymorpha-
Pisonia sandwicensis (ohia-papala kepau) mesic forest in the Kohala
Mountains (Perlman and Wood 1996, in litt.; Wagner et al. 1999, p.
218).
Historically, Ochrosia haleakalae was known from two islands, Maui
and Hawaii. On Maui, the species was known from the Koolau FR and
Makawao FR, the northern slope of Haleakala, and from Auwahi and Kanaio
on the southern slopes of Haleakala (HBMP 2010). On the island of
Hawaii, this species was known from valleys in the Kohala Mountains
(Pololu, Honopue, and Waipio) and from Kalopa gulch on the eastern
(Hamakua) slope of Mauna Kea (HBMP 2010). Currently, O. haleakalae is
known from 4 occurrences totaling 15 individuals at Makawao FR and
Auwahi-Kanaio on the island of Maui, and from 4 occurrences (Alakahi
gulch, Honopu Valley, Kalopa gulch, and Laupahoehoe) on the island of
Hawaii, totaling 16 individuals (Pratt 2005, in litt.; Medeiros 2007,
in litt.; Oppenheimer 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010).
On Hawaii, the status of the individuals at Alakahi Gulch is
uncertain after a strong earthquake in 2006; the individual found at
Kailikaula Stream was last observed in 2011, and is vulnerable to
landslides (Hadway 2013, in litt.), and the individual at Kalopa has
not been confirmed since 1999 (Agorastos 2010 and 2011, in litt.; Conry
2012, in litt.; Hadway 2013, in litt.). More than 100 propagated
individuals have been outplanted at Kipuka Puaulu and Kipuka Ki in
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park; however, survivorship of these
individuals is unknown (Pratt 2005, in litt.; Agorastos 2007, pers.
comm.; Bio 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Pratt 2011, in litt.; Conry 2012,
in litt.). Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy the habitat of O.
haleakalae on Maui and Hawaii Island, and goats and cattle modify and
destroy the habitat of O. haleakalae on Maui (Medeiros 1995, in litt.;
Oppenheimer 2004, in litt.; Pratt 2005, in litt.; Agorastos 2007, pers.
comm.). In dry areas, the possibility of wildfires affecting the
habitat of O. haleakalae is exacerbated by the presence of introduced
plant species such as Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyu grass) (HBMP
2010). In addition, nonnative plant species modify and destroy habitat
and outcompete native plants, including O. haleakalae (HBMP 2010).
Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions
and ecosystems that support this species. Ochrosia haleakalae may be
unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature or moisture, or
may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes
(Fortini et al. 2013, p. 83). This species may experience reduced
reproductive vigor due to reduced levels of genetic variability
resulting from low numbers of indivuals, leading to diminished capacity
to adapt to environmental changes, and thereby lessening the
probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4;
Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361).
Ochrosia haleakalae is at risk from habitat degradation and loss by
feral pigs, goats, cattle and nonnative plants; the displacement of
individuals due to competition with nonnative plants for

[[Page 58839]]

space, nutrients, water, air, and light; herbivory by feral pigs,
goats, and cattle; and the small number of remaining individuals; and
moderate vulnerability to the effects of climate change. The effects of
climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because
of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout
all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to
analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion
of its range.
Phyllostegia brevidens (NCN) is a scandent (climbing) subshrub in
the mint family (Lamiaceae). Stems are glabrous, and ovate leaves are 3
to 5 in (7 to 13 cm) long, also glabrous or sparsely minute-haired.
Leaf margins are dentate to serrate. There are 14 to 20 white, tubular
(with a longer lower lip) flowers per unbranched inflorescence, with
bracts 1 to 2.5 in (2 to 6 cm) long, very minutely-haired along nerves,
and minutely glandular-dotted. Nutlets are about 0.2 in (6 mm) (Wagner
et al. 1999, pp. 814-815). Phyllostegia brevidens is recognized as a
distinct taxon by Wagner et al. (1999, pp. 814-815), the most recently
accepted taxonomic treatment of this species. This species occurs in
wet forest on the islands of Maui and Hawaii at 2,900 to 3,200 ft (880
to 975 m), in the lowland wet (Maui), montane wet (Hawaii Island), and
wet cliff (Maui) ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 814-815; TNCH
2007; HBMP 2010).
Phyllostegia brevidens is historically known from Hilo FR, Mauna
Kea, and Kulani on Hawaii Island; and from Kipahulu Valley on Maui
(Haleakala National Park) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 815; HBMP 2010;
Smithsonian Institution 2014, in litt.). Currently, there is one known
occurrence of two individuals on the island of Maui (PEPP 2009, p. 90;
Wagner et al. 2012, p. 46; PEPP 2014, p. 136).
Feral pigs, sheep, mouflon, and cattle on Hawaii Island modify and
destroy the habitat of Phyllostegia brevidens, and feral pigs modify
and destroy habitat on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. 136). Nonnative plants
outcompete P. brevidens on Maui. Herbivory by slugs poses a threat to
the remaining individuals on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. 136). In addition,
natural events such as landslides are a potential threat to the
occurrence on Maui (PEPP 2014, p. 136). The small number of remaining
individuals may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental
change. Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental
conditions and ecosystems that support this species. Phyllostegia
brevidens may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in
temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to ares with more
suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 84).
The remaining occurrences of Phyllostegia brevidens and habitat for
its reintroduction are at risk. Only two individuals are known to
persist at the occurrence on Maui; no individuals have been observed
recently on Hawaii Island. Tthe species continues to be negatively
affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates and
nonnative plants, and by direct competition from nonnative plants,
combined with herbivory by ungulates and slugs. The effects of climate
change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. We find that P.
brevidens should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore,
we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Phyllostegia helleri (NCN) is a weakly erect to climbing shrub in
the mint family (Lamiaceae). Stems have small, curved hairs. Leaves are
thin and somewhat wrinkled; ovate; 4 to 6 in (1 to 14.5 cm) long, with
uneven, shiny crinkly hairs; with or without inconspicuous glandular
dots, and serrate margins. Tubular flowers are white with lavender-
tinged lobes, with the upper lobe shorter than the lower lobe. Nutlets
are 1 in (2.5 cm) long (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 816-817). Phyllostegia
helleri is recognized as a distinct taxon in the Manual of Flowering
Plants of Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 816-817), the most recently
accepted taxonomic treatment of this species. Habitat for Phyllostegia
helleri is ridges or spurs at 2,800 to 4,000 ft (860 to 1,200 m) in
diverse wet forest on Kauai, in the lowland wet, montane wet, and wet
cliff ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 817; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, Phyllostegia helleri was wide-ranging on the island
of Kauai, extending from the north and east sides throughout the
central plateau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 817; HBMP 2010). Currently,
this species is limited to 1 occurrence of 10 individuals in Wainiha
Valley (PEPP 2014, p. 35).
Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy the habitat of Phyllostegia
helleri on Kauai (HBMP 2010). Herbivory on fruits and seeds by rats
negatively affects the remaining individuals (HBMP 2010). The only
known occurrence of this species is located at the base of cliffs, and
landslides are an additional threat (HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants, such
as Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), Rubus rosifolius (thimbleberry),
Erigeron karvinskianus (daisy fleabane), Psidium guajava (common
guava), and various grasses, modify and destroy native habitat and
outcompete native plants, and are found at the last known location of
P. helleri (HBMP 2010). This species may experience reduced
reproductive vigor due to reduced levels of genetic variability,
leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, and
thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barret and
Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate change may
result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems
that support this species. Phyllostegia helleri may be unable to
tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be
unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et
al. 2013, p. 84).
The remaining occurrence of Phyllostegia helleri and habitat for
its reintroduction are at risk. The numbers of individuals are
decreasing on Kauai, as this species was wide-ranging on the island,
extending from the north and east sides throughout the central plateau,
and is now known from only one occurrence of 10 individuals. These 10
individuals continue to be negatively affected by habitat modification
and destruction by ungulates and nonnative plants, direct competition
by nonnative plants, and by seed predation by rats. Natural events such
as landslides may damage or destroy the remaining 10 individuals. The
small number of remaining individuals may limit this species' ability
to adapt to environmental changes. The effects of climate change are
likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats,
we find that P. helleri should be listed throughout all of its range,
and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Phyllostegia stachyoides (NCN) is a weakly erect to climbing
subshrub in the mint family (Lamiaceae). Stems have forward-facing
hairs; leaves are somewhat wrinkled and lanceolate to ovate, 8 in (20
cm) long and 3 in (8 cm) wide, with both surfaces moderately to
sparsely hairy. The lower leaf surface is usually moderately glandular-
dotted. The upper lip of the tubular white flower is tinged pink.
Nutlets are 1 in (3 cm) long (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 823). Phyllostegia
stachyoides is recognized as a distinct taxon in the Manual of
Flowering Plants of Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 823), the most
recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species. Phyllostegia
stachyoides occurs

[[Page 58840]]

in mesic to wet forest at 3,600 to 4,600 ft (1,000 to 1,400 m), in the
montane wet (Hawaii Island, Maui, and Molokai) and montane mesic
(Hawaii Island and Maui) ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 823; TNCH
2007; HBMP 2010).
Phyllostegia stachyoides is historically known from the eastern and
central Molokai, west Maui, and widely ranging occurrences on Hawaii
Island (north and south Kona, Kohala, and Hawaii Volcanoes National
Park) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 823; HBMP 2010). Currently, P.
stachyoides is known from seven occurrences, totaling 20 individuals.
Occurrences on west Maui, at Honokokau, Puu Kukui, Luakoi, and Lihau,
total about 15 individuals. Those on Molokai occur at Kamakou,
Hanalilolilo, and Kumueli (total of 5 individuals). Several individuals
resembling P. stachyoides were observed at Kaohe on Hawaii Island;
however, their identity is not yet confirmed (PEPP 2012, p. 156.).
Feral pigs, goats, and axis deer modify and destroy the habitat of
Phyllostegia stachyoides on Maui, with evidence of the activities of
these animals reported in areas where this species occurs (HBMP 2010).
Nonnative plants such as Erigeron karvinskianus, Tibouchina herbacea,
and Ageratina adenophora (Maui pamakani) compete with P. stachyoides,
modify and destroy its native habitat, and displace other native
Hawaiian plant species (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987
in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). Herbivory by slugs and rats on
leaves and nutlets of P. stachyoides poses a threat to this species at
known locations on Maui and Molokai (PEPP 2014, pp. 140-142). On Maui,
stochastic events such as drought pose a threat to small, isolated
occurrences of P. stachyoides, and rockfalls and landslides pose a
threat to occurrences on Molokai (PEPP 2014, pp. 140-142). This species
may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to reduced levels of
genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to
environmental changes, and thereby lessening the probability of long-
term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997,
p. 361). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental
conditions and ecosystems that support this species, through flooding
and drought. Phyllostegia stachyoides may be unable to tolerate or
respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to
move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013,
p. 84).
The remaining occurrences of Phyllostegia stachyoides and habitat
for its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are
restricted to small areas on west Maui and Molokai, and continue to be
negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by
ungulates and by direct competition with nonnative plants, combined
with herbivory by slugs and rats. The small number of remaining
individuals may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental
changes. The effects of climate change are likely to further exacerbate
these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this species
should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find
that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Portulaca villosa (ihi) is a perennial herb in the purslane family
(Portulacaceae). The taproot is fleshy to woody, with stems prostrate
to weakly ascending and 12 in (30 cm) long. The small leaves are linear
to oblong and pale grayish green. White or pink flowers are in groups
of three to six arranged in small bunches at the ends of the branches.
The fruit capsules of P. villosa are 0.2 in (5 mm) long and contain
dark reddish-brown seeds (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1074). Portulaca
villosa is recognized as a distinct taxon by Wagner et al. (1999, p.
1074), the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species.
Portulaca villosa occurs on dry, rocky, clay, lava, or coralline reef
sites, from sea level to 1,600 ft (490 m), in the coastal (Lehua,
Kaula, Oahu, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii Island) and lowland dry (Oahu,
Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii Island) ecosystems, and one
reported occurrence in the montane dry (Hawaii Island) ecosystem
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1074; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Portulaca villosa is historically known from all the main Hawaiian
Islands except Niihau and Kauai (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1074).
Portulaca villosa has been observed on the small islets of Kaula and
Lehua (west of Kauai and Niihau), and from Nihoa (NWHI); however, their
current status is unknown. This species has not been observed on Oahu
since the 1960s, when it was locally abundant at Kaohikaipu Island
(HBMP 2010). Portulaca villosa is known from Molokai at Kauhako Crater
(a few), from east Maui on Alau islet (2 individuals), from west Maui
at Lihau (about 24 individuals), and from Kahoolawe at Puu Koaie,
Aleale, and above Kamalio (fewer than 15 individuals) (MNTF 2010, in
litt.). On the island of Lanai, two individuals were observed at Kaohai
in 1996 (HBMP 2010). On the island of Hawaii, there are five
occurrences in the Pohakuloa Training Area, totaling 10 individuals
(Evans 2015, in litt.).
Axis deer (Maui and Lanai), mouflon, sheep, and goats (Lanai), and
cattle (Hawaii Island) modify and destroy the habitat of Portulaca
villosa (HBMP 2010). These animals may also forage directly on this
species. Nonnative plants compete with and modify and destroy native
habitat of P. villosa; displace this species and other native Hawaiian
plants; and pose a threat to the known occurrences on Hawaii Island,
Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Molokai (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek
et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). Portulaca villosa occurs
in drier coastal and lowland habitats, all of which are at risk from
wildfires. Some coastal habitat includes exposed cliffs, which erode
and cause rockfalls in areas where P. villosa occurs (Kahoolawe),
posing a threat to this species (HBMP 2010). This species may
experience reduced reproductive vigor due to low levels of genetic
variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental
changes, and thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence
(Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate
change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and
ecosystems that support this species. Portulaca villosa may be unable
to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may
be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al. 2013, p. 86).
The remaining occurrences of Portulaca villosa and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk; the number of occurrences have decreased on
Oahu, Lanai, and Hawaii Island, and the species continues to be
negatively affected by continued habitat modification and destruction,
and by competition from nonnative plants. Because of its small and
isolated remaining occurrences, natural events such as rockfalls,
landslides, and wildfires may pose a threat to this species. The small
number of remaining individuals may limit this species' ability to
adapt to environmental changes. The effects of climate change are
likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats,
we find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range,
and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Pritchardia bakeri (Baker's loulu) is a small to medium-sized palm
in the palm

[[Page 58841]]

family (Arecaceae). This palm species, endemic to Oahu, is 23 to 30 ft
(7 to10 m) tall, with a smooth, grayish trunk 8 to 10 in (20 to 25 cm)
in diameter. Its crown contains up to 40 ascending to stiffly spreading
leaves, 2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 0.9 m) long and wide, on 1 to 2 ft (0.3 to
0.6 m) leaf stalks. The leaf blades are glossy green above and silvery
grayish below. The flower and fruit stalks have up to three long
primary branches that are nearly equal in length to the leaf when in
flower, but greatly exceed the leaf length when in fruit. Fruit are
shiny, black, and spherical, up to 2 in (5 cm) long and 2 in (4 cm)
wide when mature (Hodel 2009, pp. 173-179; Hodel 2012, pp. 70-73).
Pritcharida bakeri is recognized as a distinct taxon by Hodel (2009,
pp. 173-179; 2012, pp. 70-73), the most currently accepted taxonomic
treatments of this species. Pritchardia bakeri occurs in the lowland
mesic ecosystem in the Koolau Mountains on Oahu, at 1,500 to 2,100 ft
(457 to 640 m), in disturbed, windswept, and mostly exposed shrubby or
grassy areas, and sometimes on steep slopes in these areas (Hodel 2012,
pp. 71-73). Pritcharida bakeri was first described as a new species in
2009 by Hodel (pp. 173-179). This palm occurs on the northern end
(Pupukea) and southern end (Kuliouou) of the Koolau Mountain range, on
the island of Oahu (Bacon et al. 2012, pp. 1-17; Hodel 2012, pp. 71-
73). Currently, occurrences total approximately 250 individuals (Hodel
2012, pp. 42, 71).
Habitat modification and destruction by feral pigs affect the range
and abundance of Pritchardia bakeri. Rats eat the fruit before they
mature (Hodel 2012, pp. 42, 73). Nonnative plants compete with and
degrade and destroy native habitat of P. bakeri and displace this
species and other native Hawaiian plants by competing for water,
nutrients, light, and space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit
growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987
in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74). Stochastic events such as hurricanes
modify and destroy the habitat of P. bakeri, and can damage or kill
plants. This species may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to
low levels of genetic variability caused by seed predation by rats and
widely separated occurrences, leading to diminished capacity to adapt
to environmental changes, and thereby lessening the probability of
long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson
1997, p. 361; Hodel 2012, p. 73).
Based on our evaluation of habitat degradation and loss by feral
pigs and nonnative plants, fruit predation by rats, and the small
number and reduced range of remaining individuals, we find that this
species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore,
we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense (enaena) is a
perennial herb in the sunflower family (Asteraceae). This species has
prostrate stems 4 to 12 in (10 to 31 cm) long, with densely white
woolly pubescence on the entire plant. Leaves are spatulate to narrowly
obovate, 0.3 to 0.8 in (7 to 20 mm) wide. Whitish to pale yellow flower
heads occur in terminal, leafless clusters (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
321). First described by Sherff and Degener (1948) as an infraspecific
taxon in the genus Gnaphalium, Wagner (1997) moved the entire species
to Pseudognaphalium. This variety is recognized as a distinct taxon in
Wagner et al. (1999, pp. 321-322) and Wagner and Herbst (2003, p. 8),
the most recently accepted taxonomic treatments of this species. In
evaluating the status of botanical varieties for listing as threatened
or endangered or threatened under the Act, we consider them to be
equivalent to subspecies (43 FR 17910, April 26, 1978, see p. 17912).
Typical habitat for Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense is
strand vegetation in dry consolidated dunes, in the coastal ecosystem
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 321; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, this variety was found on Molokai (Halawa Valley and
Waiahewahewa Gulch), on Oahu (on the coast between Diamond Head and
Koko Head, and along the Waimanalo coast), on Maui (Wailuku area), and
on Lanai (along the Munro trail) (HBMP 2010; MNTF 2010, in litt.).
Currently, Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense is known
only from Molokai on the northwestern coast at Ilio Point (as many as
20,000 individuals, depending on rainfall) and Kauhako Crater (a few
individuals), and from northwest coast of Maui at Waiehu dunes
(scattered individuals) and Puu Kahulianapa (5 to 10 individuals)
(Moses 2006, in litt.; Starr 2006, in litt.; Kallstrom 2008, in litt.).
This variety was last observed on Lanai in 1960, and on Oahu at Diamond
Head (5 individuals) in the 1980s (HBMP 2010).
Goats and axis deer modify and destroy the habitat of
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense, with evidence of the
activities of these animals reported in the areas where this plant
occurs (Moses 2006, in litt.; Starr 2006, in litt.; Kallstrom 2008, in
litt; HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but
public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to
eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate
herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR
2010, in litt.). Additionally, nonnative plants, such as Atriplex
semibaccata (Australian saltbush), Cenchrus ciliaris (buffelgrass), and
Prosopis pallida (kiawe), compete with and displace this and other
native Hawaiian plants by competing for water, nutrients, light, and
space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other
plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, p. 74; Moses 2009, in litt.). This variety may experience
reduced reproductive vigor due to low levels of genetic variability,
leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, and
thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and
Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Pseudognaphalium
sandwicensium var. molokaiense occurs on a sea cliff on west Maui, and
rockfalls and landslides pose a threat (HBMP 2010). Climate change may
result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems
that support this species. Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var.
molokaiense molokaiense may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes
in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with
more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 86).
The remaining occurrences of Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var.
molokaiense and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk; individuals
no longer occur on Oahu and Lanai. Occurrences on Maui and Molokai
continue to be negatively affected by habitat modification and
destruction by ungulates, and by direct competition with nonnative
plants. The small number of remaining occurrences may limit this
species' ability to adapt to environmental changes. The effects of
climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because
of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout
all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to
analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion
of its range.
Ranunculus hawaiensis (makou) is an erect or ascending perennial
herb in the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). This species is 2 to 6.5
ft (0.6 to 2 m) tall with fibrous roots. Stems are densely covered with
golden or whitish hairs. Basal

[[Page 58842]]

leaves are twice compound, with leaflets lanceolate and the terminal
leaf largest and irregularly toothed and lobed. The yellow, glossy
flowers are numerous in branched open cymes and contain a scale-covered
nectary at the base. Fruit are numerous and are margined with a narrow
wing (Duncan 1999, p. 1088). Ranunculus hawaiensis was described by
Gray (1854) and is recognized as a distinct taxon by Duncan (1999, p.
1088), the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species.
Typical habitat is mesic forest on grassy slopes and scree, and in open
pastures, at 6,000 to 6,700 ft (1,800 to 2,000 m), in the montane mesic
(Hawaii Island), montane dry (Hawaii Island), and subalpine (Hawaii
Island and Maui) ecosystems (Medeiros 2007, pers. comm.; Pratt 2007, in
litt.; Duncan 1999, p. 1088; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007).
Historically, Ranunculus hawaiensis was wide-ranging on the island
of Hawaii, from Kona, Hualalai, Mauna Kea, and Kau. On Maui, this
species was known from Haleakala National Park (HBMP 2010). In the
1980s and 1990s, this species numbered several hundred individuals on
both islands. Currently, there are six occurrences totaling 14
individuals on Hawaii Island (Hakalau NWR, Puu Kanakaleonui, Kolekole
Gulch, Kahuku, Kapapala FR, and Kipahoe NAR) (Bio 2008, in litt.; PEPP
2008, p. 108; Pratt 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Agorastos 2011, in
litt.; Imoto 2013, in litt.). On Maui, a few individuals were observed
on a cliff in the Waikamoi Preserve in 1994; however, this occurrence
was not relocated in further surveys (PEPP 2013, p. 177). Additionally,
no individuals were re-observed in Haleakala National Park (DLNR 2006,
p. 61).
Feral pigs, mouflon, and cattle modify and destroy the habitat of
Ranunculus hawaiensis on Hawaii Island, with evidence of the activities
of these animals reported in the areas where R. hawaiensis occurs (HBMP
2010). These ungulates, and rats, may also forage on R. hawaiensis.
Nonnative plants, such as Holcus lanatus (common velvet grass),
Ehrharta stipoides (meadow ricegrass), and various grasses that modify
and destroy native habitat and outcompete native plants have been
reported in areas where R. hawaiensis occurs (HBMP 2010). Drought and
erosion pose a threat to the last known occurrence of R. hawaiensis on
Maui (PEPP 2013, p. 177). This species may experience reduced
reproductive vigor due to low levels of genetic variability, leading to
diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, and thereby
lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barret and Kohn
1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate change may result
in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that
support this species. Ranunculus hawaiensis may be unable to tolerate
or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to
move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013,
p. 86).
The remaining occurrences of Ranunculus hawaiensis and habitat for
its reintroduction are at risk; the known individuals are restricted to
small areas on Maui and Hawaii Island and continue to be negatively
affected by habitat modification and destruction by feral ungulates,
and by direct competition with nonnative plants, combined with
predation by ungulates. Drought and erosion pose a threat to the
occurrence on Maui. The small number of remaining individuals may limit
this species' ability to adapt to environmental changes. Because of
these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout
all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to
analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion
of its range.
Ranunculus mauiensis (makou) is an erect to weakly ascending
perennial herb in the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). This species is
2 to 6.5 ft (0.5 to 2 m) tall, with stems sparsely to densely pubescent
with scattered whitish hairs. Basal leaves are compound with ovate
leaflets with the terminal leaflet being the largest and irregularly
serrate. Yellow flowers are few, in branched loose cymes. Fruit are
numerous in a globose head and have smooth faces (Wagner et al. 1999,
p. 1089). Ranunculus mauiensis was described by Gray (1854) and is
recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner et al. (1999, p. 1089), the
most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species. Typical
habitat for R. mauiensis is open sites in mesic to wet forest and along
streams, at 3,500 to 5,600 ft (1,060 to 1,700 m), in the montane wet
(Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui), montane mesic (Kauai, Molokai, Maui,
and Hawaii Island), montane dry (Hawaii Island), and wet cliff (Molokai
and Maui) ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1089; TNCH 2007; HBMP
2010).
Historically, Ranunculus mauiensis was known from five islands:
Kauai (Kuia, Kokee, and Na Pali Kona), Oahu (Waianae Mountains),
Molokai (Kamakou, Kalae, Waikolu, and Kaluaaha), Maui (Puu Kukui,
Kapunakea, Pohakea, Olinda, Kipahulu, Waikamoi, and Puu Alaea), and
Hawaii (Kealakekua) (HBMP 2010). Currently, R. mauiensis is known from
14 occurrences (totaling approximately 200 individuals) on three
islands: Kauai, Maui, and Molokai. On Kauai, R. mauiensis is found at
Kalalau-Honopu (34 individuals), Nualolo (12 individuals), Kawaiiki
ridge (4 individuals), Nawaimaka (1 individual), and Nawaimaka stream
(2 individuals) (Perlman 2007, in litt.; Wood 2007, in litt.; HBMP
2010; PEPP 2011, p. 161; PEPP 2013, p. 177). On Molokai, there are two
individuals in Kamakou Preserve; however, these plants were not
relocated during recent surveys (PEPP 2010, p. 105; Bakutis 2011, in
litt.). Oahu occurrences have not been observed since the 1800s (HBMP
2010). On west Maui, this species is found at Kapunakea Preserve (5
individuals), Pohakea Gulch (5 individuals), Lihau (5 individuals),
Kauaula Valley (1 individual), and Puehuehunui (34 individuals); and on
east Maui, this species is found at Waikamoi Preserve (20 individuals),
Makawao Forest Reserve (30 individuals), Kahikinui (10 individuals),
and Manawainui (10 individuals) (PEPP 2013, p. 177; Perlman 2007, in
litt.; Wood 2007, in litt.; Bily 2007, pers. comm.). Hawaii Island
occurrences have not been observed since 1980 (HBMP 2010).
Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, and cattle modify
and destroy the habitat of R. mauiensis on Kauai, Molokai, and Maui,
with evidence of the activities of these animals reported in the areas
where this species occurs (PEPP 2014, pp. 155-156; HBMP 2010).
Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals (except for cattle),
but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates
to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate
herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR
2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants modify and destroy the native habitat
of R. mauiensis, and displace this species and other native Hawaiian
plants by competing for water, nutrients, light, and space, or they may
produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of other plants (Smith 1985,
pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74;
HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 155). Herbivory by slugs (Maui) and seed
predation by rats (Maui, Kauai) are both reported to pose a threat to
R. mauiensis (PEPP 2014, pp. 154-155; HBMP 2010). Stochastic events
such as drought (Maui), landslides (Kauai), and fire (Maui) are also
reported to pose a threat to R. mauiensis (HBMP 2010). Erosion is a
threat to occurrences on Maui and Kauai (PEPP 2014, p. 155-

[[Page 58843]]

156). This species may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to low
levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt
to environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of its
long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson
1997, p. 361). Climate change may result in alteration of the
environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Ranunculus mauiensis may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in
temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more
suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 86).
The remaining occurrences of Ranunculus mauiensis and habitat for
its reintroduction are at risk, the known individuals are restricted to
small areas on Kauai, Molokai, and Maui, and continue to be negatively
affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, direct
competition with nonnative plants, and herbivory and predation by slugs
and rats. Because of its small, isolated occurrences, landslides,
drought, and erosion may also have negatively impact this species. The
small number of remaining individuals may limit this species' ability
to adapt to environmental changes. Because of these threats, we find
that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Sanicula sandwicensis (NCN) is a stout, erect, perennial herb in
the parsley family (Apiaceae). This species is 8 to 28 in (20 and 70
cm) tall, with multiple, profusely-branched stems arising from the
rootstalk. The basal leaves are numerous, chartaceous, orbicular, 1 to
5 in (3 to 12 cm) wide, and palmately 3-parted or 5-parted nearly to
the petiole. The yellow flowers are umbellately arranged in terminal
clusters of 2 to 5 stalks, with up to 20 flowers. Fruit is ovoid, 0.2
in (4 mm) long, and covered with stout, hooked, bulbous prickles
(Constance and Affolter 1999, p. 210). Sanicula sandwicensis is
recognized as a distinct taxon by Constance and Affolter in Wagner et
al. (1999, p. 210), the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of
this species. Sanicula sandwicensis occurs at 6,500 to 8,500 ft (2,000
to 2,600 m) in shrubland and woodland on the islands of Maui and Hawaii
Island, in the montane mesic (Hawaii Island and Maui), montane dry
(Hawaii Island), and subalpine (Hawaii Island and Maui) ecosystems
(Constance and Affolter 1999, p. 210; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Sanicula sandwicensis is historically known from the islands of
Maui (Haleakala) and Hawaii (Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, and Haulalai)
(Constance and Affolter1999, p. 210). Currently, there are fewer than
20 individuals of S. sandwicensis on east and west Maui (MNTF 2010, in
litt.; PEPP 2011, pp. 162-164). This species has not been observed on
Hawaii Island since the 1990s (HBMP 2010; MNTF 2010, in litt.).
Feral goats modify and destroy the habitat of Sanicula sandwicensis
on Maui, with evidence of the activities of these animals reported in
the areas where this species occurs (PEPP 2011, pp. 162-164). Ungulates
are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not
adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat
modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these
animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.).
Nonnative plants modify and destroy the habitat of S. sandwicensis, and
displace this species and other native Hawaiian plants by competing for
water, nutrients, light, and space, or they may produce chemicals that
inhibit the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek
et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; PEPP 2011, pp. 162-164).
Those nonnative plants observed to directly affect S. sandwicensis and
its habitat are Ageratina adenophora, Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet
vernalgrass), Epilobium ciliatum (willow herb), Holcus lanatus, Pinus
spp., Prunella vulgaris, and Rubus argutus (PEPP 2011, pp. 162-164).
Seed predation by rats is likely to adversely affect this species (HBMP
2010). Stochastic events such as drought, flooding, and fires are all
reported to pose a threat to this species (PEPP 2011, pp. 162-164).
Erosion is a threat to occurrences on Maui (PEPP 2011, pp. 162-163).
This species may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to low
levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt
to environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of its
long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson
1997, p. 361). Climate change may result in alteration of the
environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Sanicula sandwicensis may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes
in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with
more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 88).
The remaining occurrences of Sanicula sandwicensis and habitat for
its reintroduction are at risk; the known individuals are restricted to
a small area on Maui and continue to be negatively affected by habitat
modification and destruction by feral goats and by direct competition
with nonnative plants. Stochastic events such as drought, flooding, and
fires all pose threats to this species. The small number of remaining
individuals may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental
changes. Because of these threats, we find that this species should be
listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is
unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a
significant portion of its range.
Santalum involutum (iliahi) is a shrub or small tree in the
sandalwood family (Santalaceae). This species is 7 to 23 ft (2 to 7 m)
tall, with yellowish-green to grayish-green leaves that are thinly
chartaceous and often appearing droopy. The flowers are cream to
purple, or greenish with a purple interior (Harbaugh et al. 2010, pp.
827-838). Santalum involutum, originally described by St. John in 1984
(pp. 217-226), was not recognized by Wagner et al. (1999, p. 1218);
however, genetic analyses conducted by Harbaugh et al. (2010, pp. 827-
838) revived this species as a valid taxon. Habitat for Santalum
involutum is mesic and wet forest on Kauai, at 400 to 2,500 ft (120 to
750 m), in the lowland mesic and lowland wet ecosystems (TNCH 2007;
Harbaugh et al. 2010, pp. 827-838). Historically, this species was
known from northern Kauai at Kee, Hanakapiai, and Wainiha, and from
southern Kauai at Wahiawa, but has not been observed in these areas for
30 years (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 835). Currently, approximately 50 to
100 individuals occur in isolated forest pockets in Pohakuao and
Kalalau valleys (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 835).
Feral pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer modify and destroy the
habitat of Santalum involutum on Kauai, with evidence of the activities
of these animals reported in the areas where this species occurs
(Harbaugh et al. 2010, pp. 835-836). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as
game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the
numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction,
or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in
litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants modify and destroy
the native habitat of S. involutum, and displace this species and other
native Hawaiian plants by competing for water, nutrients, light, and
space, or they may produce

[[Page 58844]]

chemicals that inhibit the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-
250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010).
Nonnative plants reported to modify and destroy habitat of S. involutum
are: Psidium guajava, P. cattleianum, Lantana camara, Rubus argutus,
Hedychium gardnerianum, Clidemia hirta, Melinis minutiflora (molasses
grass) (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 836). Herbivory and seed predation by
rats is reported to pose a threat to S. involutum (Harbaugh et al.
2010, p. 836). Wildfire is a potential threat to this species in mesic
areas (Harbaugh et al. 2010, p. 836). This species may experience
reduced reproductive vigor due to low levels of genetic variability,
leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes,
thereby lessening the probability of its long-term persistence (Barrett
and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361).
The remaining occurrences of Santalum involutum and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk; the known individuals are restricted to a
small area on Kauai and continue to be negatively affected by habitat
modification and destruction by ungulates, direct competition with
nonnative plants, and by herbivory and fruit predation by rats. The
small number of remaining individuals may limit this species' ability
to adapt to environmental changes. Because of these threats, we find
that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa (NCN) is a reclining or weakly
climbing vine in the pink family (Caryophyllaceae). This species is
woody at the base, and glabrous or nearly so below, with purple-tinged
hairs. Lanceolate to ovate leaves are 2 to 5 in (4 to 12 cm) long.
Inflorescences have 20 to 90 flowers with purple or purple-tinged
stalks. Capsules are very broadly ovoid, 0.2 to 0.3 in (5 to 7 mm)
long. Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa was described by Wawra (1825, in
Wagner et al. 2005, pp. 103-104) as S. diffusa ssp. angustifolia, now a
synonym. This subspecies is currently recognized as a distinct taxon in
Wagner et al. (1999, pp. 511-512) and in the Schiedea monograph by
Wagner et al. (2005, pp. 103-106), the most recently accepted taxonomic
treatments of this subspecies. Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa occurs in
wet forest at 3,000 to 5,300 ft (915 to 1,600 m) on Molokai, and to
6,700 ft (2,050 m) on Maui, in the lowland wet (Maui) and montane wet
(Maui and Molokai) ecosystems (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 512; HBMP 2010;
TNCH 2007).
Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa was historically found on the islands
of Molokai and Maui. On Molokai, this subspecies was known from Kawela
to Waikolu valleys; on Maui, it was wide-ranging on both the east and
west mountains (Wagner et al. 2005, p. 106). Currently, S. diffusa ssp.
diffusa is known from east Maui in six occurrences (fewer than 50
individuals total), in a much smaller range, from Puu o Kalae to Keanae
(spanning about 5 mi (8 km)). On Molokai, there were two occurrences
totaling fewer than 10 individuals, one at west Kawela Gulch, and one
on the rim of Pelekunu Valley, last observed in the 1990s (HBMP 2010).
Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of Schiedea diffusa ssp.
diffusa on Maui and Molokai, with evidence of the activities of these
animals reported in the areas where this subspecies occurs (PEPP 2014,
p. 159; HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals
(except for cattle), but public hunting does not adequately control the
numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction,
or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in
litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants modify and destroy
the native habitat of S. diffusa ssp. diffusa, and displace this
subspecies and other native Hawaiian plants by competing for water,
nutrients, light, and space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit
the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al.
1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 159).
Herbivory by slugs and seed predation by rats are both reported to pose
a threat to this subspecies (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 159). This
subspecies may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to low levels
of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to
environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of its long-
term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997,
p. 361).
The remaining occurrences of Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa and
habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are
restricted to small areas on Maui and on Molokai (where it has not been
observed for 20 years or longer), and continue to be negatively
affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, direct
competition with nonnative plants, and herbivory and predation by slugs
and rats. The small number of remaining individuals may limit this
subspecies' ability to adapt to environmental changes. Because of these
threats, we find that this subspecies should be listed throughout all
of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its
range.
Schiedea pubescens (maolioli) is a reclining or weakly climbing
vine in the pink family (Caryophyllaceae). This species is glabrous
except for the inflorescence which has dense, purple-tinged hairs. The
stems are 3 to 20 ft (1 to 6 m) long with internodes usually 2.5 to 5
in (6 to 12 cm) long. Opposite, leathery, narrowly lanceolate leaves
are sometimes purple-tinged, especially along the midrib. The tiny
flowers are perfect and are arranged in open cymes 12 to 20 in (30 to
50 cm) long (30 to 88 flowers) with purple hairs, and green to purple
bracts and sepals. Capsules are 0.1 in (3 mm) long (Wagner et al. 1999,
p. 519; Wagner et al. 2005, pp. 99-102). Schiedea pubescens was
described by Hillebrand (1888, pp. 31-32), and is recognized as a
distinct taxon in Wagner et al. (1999, p. 519), and in the Schiedea
monograph by Wagner et al. (2005, pp. 99-102), the most recently
accepted taxonomic treatments. Schiedea pubescens occurs in diverse
mesic to wet Metrosideros forest at 2,000 to 4,000 ft (640 to 1,220 m),
in the lowland wet (Maui and Molokai), montane wet (Molokai), montane
mesic (Maui), and wet cliff (Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) ecosystems
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 519; Wagner et al. 2005, p. 100; HBMP 2010;
TNCH 2007).
Schiedea pubescens was historically found on the islands of
Molokai, Lanai, and Maui. On Molokai, this species was found from Kalae
to Pukoo ridge; on Lanai, it was known from the Lanaihale summit area,
and on Maui, it was known from the western mountains at Olowalu,
Kaanapali, and Waihee, and a possible occurrence the eastern mountains
at Makawao (HBMP 2010). Currently, this species is known from one
occurrence on Molokai, totaling fewer than 30 individuals; has not been
observed on Lanai since 1922 and is believed extirpated; and from five
occurrences on Maui (Wood 2001, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2006, in litt.;
Bakutis 2010, in litt.; MNTF 2010, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2010, in
litt.; Perlman 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, pp. 162-163). It
was determined that a report of 4 to 6 individuals of S. pubescens in
PTA on the island of Hawaii was a misidentification of the species S.
hawaiiensis (Wagner et al. 2005, pp. 93, 95).
Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle modify and destroy the
habitat of Schiedea pubescens on Maui, Lanai,

[[Page 58845]]

and Molokai, with evidence of the activities of these animals reported
in the areas where this species occurs (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 162).
Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals (except for cattle),
but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates
to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate
herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR
2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants modify and destroy the native habitat
of S. pubescens, and displace this species and other native Hawaiian
plants by competing for water, nutrients, light, and space, or they may
produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of other plants (Smith 1985,
pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74;
HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, pp. 162-163). Herbivory by slugs and seed
predation by rats are both reported to pose a threat to S. pubescens on
Maui (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 162). Stochastic events such as drought,
erosion, and flooding are also reported to pose a threat to S.
pubescens (HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, pp. 162). This species may experience
reduced reproductive vigor due to low levels of genetic variability,
leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes,
thereby lessening the probability of its long-term persistence (Barrett
and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate change
may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystem
that support this species. Schiedea pubescens may be unable to tolerate
or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to
move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013,
p. 88).
The remaining occurrences of Schiedea pubescens and habitat for its
reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are restricted to
small areas on Molokai and Maui, and continue to be negatively affected
by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, direct
competition with nonnative plants, and herbivory and predation by slugs
and rats. Landslides, flooding, and drought may impact this species.
The small number of remaining individuals may limit this species'
ability to adapt to environmental changes. Because of these threats, we
find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range,
and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Sicyos lanceoloideus (anunu) is a perennial vine in the gourd
family (Cucurbitaceae). Stems are 49 ft (15 m) long with a woody base.
Leaves are broadly ovate and palmately 3- to 5-lobed. Iflorescences are
branched, 3 to 8 in (8 to 20 cm) long, with white flowers. Fruit are
green, up to 1 in (25 mm) long and beaked (Telford 1999, p. 581). In
1999, Wagner and Shannon (pp. 441-447) prepared a series of papers
analyzing the names published in 1987 and 1988 by St. John, in which
the nomenclature was evaluated and the taxa incorporated in a current
classification. This provided a new combination for Sicyos sp. A as
Sicyos lanceoloideus (Telford p. 581; Wagner and Shannon 1999, p. 444).
Sicyos lanceoloideus is recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner et al.
(2012, p. 31), the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment. Sicyos
lanceoloideus occurs on ridges or spurs in mesic forest at 1,800 to
2,700 ft (550 to 800 m), in the dry cliff (Oahu), lowland mesic (Oahu
and Kauai), and montane mesic (Kauai) ecosystems (Telford p. 581; HBMP
2010; TNCH 2007).
Sicyos lanceoloideus was historically found on the islands of Kauai
(Kalalau Valley and Waimea Canyon) and Oahu (Waianae Mountains)
(Telford 1999, p. 581). Currently, S. lanceoloideus occurs on Kauai in
one occurrence in the Na Pali-Kona FR (exact number of individuals
unknown), and on Oahu in four locations in the Waianae Mountains,
totaling fewer than 35 individuals (HBMP 2010; U.S. Army 2014
database). There may be more individuals, but because this species is a
vine, it is difficult to determine exact numbers (PEPP 2013, p. 189).
Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy the habitat of Sicyos
lanceoloideus on Kauai and Oahu, with evidence of the activities of
these animals reported in the areas where this species occurs (PEPP
2013, p. 189; PEPP 2014, p. 166; HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in
Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control
the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and
destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et
al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants modify
and destroy the native habitat of S. lanceoloideus, and displace this
species and other native Hawaiian plants by competing for water,
nutrients, light, and space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit
the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al.
1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010). Drought and fire are
also reported to pose a threat to S. lanceoloideus (PEPP 2014, pp. 166;
HBMP 2010). Owing to the small remaining number of individuals, this
species may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to low levels of
genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to
environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of its long-
term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997,
p. 361). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental
conditions and ecosystems that support this species. Sicyos
lanceoloideus may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in
temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more
suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 89).
The remaining occurrences of Sicyos lanceoloideus and habitat for
its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are restricted to
small areas on Kauai and Oahu and continue to be negatively affected by
habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, direct competition
with nonnative plants, and stochastic events such as drought. The small
number of remaining individuals may limit this species' ability to
adapt to environmental change. The effects of climate change are likely
to further exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find
that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Sicyos macrophyllus (anunu) is a perennial vine in the gourd family
(Cucurbitaceae). This species has sparsely pubescent stems with black
spots, 49 ft (15 m) long. Leaves are broadly ovate and deeply lobed,
with the upper surface glabrous and lower surface densely pubescent.
Tendrils are twice branched. Flowers are either male or female, occur
in pubescent panicles, and have a greenish-yellow corolla. The fruit is
round and green (Telford 1999, p. 578). In 1987, a plant that occurred
at Kipahulu on Maui was identified as Sicyocarya kipahuluensis by St.
John (1987, p. 52). Since that time, Wagner and Shannon (1999, p. 444)
synonymized this species under Sicyos macrophyllus. As a result, this
species is not endemic to Hawaii Island, but occurs on both Maui and
Hawaii. Sicyos macrophyllus is recognized as a distinct taxon in
Telford (1999, p. 519) and in Wagner and Shannon (1999), the most
recently accepted taxonomic treatments for this species. Typical
habitat is wet Metrosideros polymorpha forest and Sophora chrysophylla-
Myoporum sandwicense (mamane-naio) forest, at 4,000 to 6,600 ft (1,200
to 2,000 m) in the montane mesic (Hawaii Island),

[[Page 58846]]

montane wet (Maui), and montane dry (Hawaii Island) ecosystems (Telford
1999, p. 578; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, Sicyos macrophyllus was known from Puuwaawaa,
Laupahoehoe, Puna, and South Kona on the island of Hawaii, and from
Kipahulu Valley on the island of Maui (HBMP 2010). Currently, S.
macrophyllus is known from 10 occurrences, totaling between 24 and 26
individuals, on the island of Hawaii at Puu Mali, Puuwaawaa (Puu Iki),
Honaunau, Hakalau NWR-Kona Unit, Kaohe, Kukuiopae, Kipuka Maunaiu,
Kipuka Ki, and Puu Huluhulu (Bio 2008, in litt.; Pratt 2008, pers.
comm.; HBMP 2010). It is reported that wild individuals at Kipuka Ki at
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park are reproducing; however, seeds have not
been successfully germinated under nursery conditions (Pratt 2005,
pers. comm.). The individual on Maui has not been observed since 1987
(HBMP 2010).
Feral pigs, mouflon, and cattle modify and destroy the habitat of
Sicyos macrophyllus on the island of Hawaii, with evidence of the
activities of these animals reported in the areas where this species
occurs (HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals
(except for cattle), but public hunting does not adequately control the
numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction,
or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in
litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants modify and destroy
the native habitat of S. macrophyllus, and displace this species and
other native Hawaiian plants by competing for water, nutrients, light,
and space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of
other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy
and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010). Seed predation by rats is reported
to pose a threat to this species (HBMP 2010). Stochastic events such as
fire are also reported to pose a threat to S. macrophyllus (HBMP 2010).
This species may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to low
levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt
to environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of its
long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson
1997, p. 361). Climate change may result in alteration of the
environmental conditions and ecosystem that support this species.
Sicyos macrophyllus may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in
temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more
suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 89).
The remaining occurrences of Sicyos macrophyllus and habitat for
its reintroduction are at risk. The only known individuals are
restricted to small areas on Hawaii Island and continue to be
negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by
ungulates, direct competition with nonnative plants, and seed predation
by rats. The small number of remaining individuals may limit this
species' ability to adapt to environmental changes. The effects of
climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because
of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout
all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to
analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion
of its range.
Solanum nelsonii (popolo) is a sprawling or trailing shrub up to 3
ft (1 m) tall, in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) family. Plants
form clumps up to 5 ft (2 m) in diameter. Young stems and leaves are
densely pubescent and do not have spines. Broadly ovate leaves are
grayish green, have entire margins, and are arranged alternately along
the stems. Flowers are perfect and have a white tubular corolla that is
tinged with lavender to pale purple. Round berries are usually black
when mature with numerous seeds. Solanum nelsonii is unusual in the
genus with its doubly curved, purple anthers, which possibly suggest
different pollinators than bees (Symon 1999, pp. 1273-1274). Solanum
nelsonii was described by Dunal (1852, 690 pp.) and is recognized as a
distinct taxon in the Manual of Flowering Plants of Hawaii (Symon 1999,
pp. 1273-1274), the most recently accepted Hawaiian plant taxonomy.
Typical habitat for this species is coral rubble or sand in coastal
sites up to 490 ft (150 m), in the coastal ecosystem (Symon 1999, pp.
1273-1274; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).
Historically, Solanum nelsonii was known from the island of Hawaii
(Kaalualu, Kamilo, and Kaulana Bay, South Point; 5 individuals total);
the island of Niihau at Kealea Bay, Kawaewaae, and Leahi; Nihoa Island;
Laysan Island; Pearl and Hermes Reef (North Island, Seal-Kittery
Island, and Grass Island); and at Kure Atoll (Green Island) (Lamoreaux
1963, p. 6; Clapp et al. 1977, p. 36; HBMP 2010). This species was last
collected on Niihau in 1949 (HBMP 2010). The only known individual on
Maui was reported to have disappeared in the mid-1990s, after cattle
had been allowed to graze in its last known habitat (HBMP 2010).
Currently, S. nelsonii occurs in the coastal ecosystem, on the islands
of Hawaii and Molokai (approximately 50 individuals), and on the
northwestern Hawaiian Islands of Kure (an unknown number of
individuals), Midway (approximately 260 individuals on Sand, Eastern,
and Spit islands), Laysan (approximately 490 individuals), Pearl and
Hermes (30 to 100 individuals), and Nihoa (8,000 to 15,000 individuals)
(Aruch 2006, in litt.; Rehkemper 2006, in litt.; Tangalin 2006, in
litt.; Bio 2008, in litt.; Vanderlip 2011, in litt.; Conry 2012, in
litt.; PEPP 2013, pp. 190-191).
Axis deer and cattle modify and destroy the habitat of Solanum
nelsonii on the main Hawaiian islands of Maui, Molokai, and Hawaii
(except axis deer), with evidence of the activities of these animals
reported in the areas where this species occurs (HBMP 2010). Ungulates
are managed in Hawaii as game animals (except for cattle), but public
hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to
eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate
herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR
2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants modify and destroy the native habitat
of S. nelsonii, both on the main Hawaiian Islands and on some of the
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants displace
this species and other native Hawaiian plants by competing for water,
nutrients, light, and space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit
the growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al.
1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010). Seed predation by
rats has been reported to pose a threat to S. nelsonii on Molokai (PEPP
2014, p. 167). Stochastic events such as drought, erosion, fire, and
flooding are also reported to pose a threat to S. nelsonii (PEPP 2014,
p. 167; HBMP 2010). In 2011, a tidal wave swept over Midway Atoll's
Eastern Island and Kure Atoll's Green Island, spreading plastic debris
and destroying seabird nesting areas as far as about 500 ft (150 m)
inland (DOFAW 2011, in litt.; USFWS 2011, in litt.). Tsunami, and
potential sea level rise with global warming, could modify and destroy
habitat for S. nelsonii in the low-lying Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
Occurrences of this species on the main Hawaiian Islands may experience
reduced reproductive vigor due to low levels of genetic variability,
leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes,
thereby lessening the probability of its long-term persistence (Barrett
and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate change
may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and

[[Page 58847]]

ecosystems that support this species. Solanum nelsonii may be unable to
tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be
unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et
al. 2013, p. 89).
The remaining occurrences of Solanum nelsonii on the main Hawaiian
Islands are restricted to small areas of Molokai and Hawaii Island, and
continue to be negatively affected by habitat modification and
destruction by ungulates, direct competition with nonnative plants, and
herbivory and predation by rats. The relatively isolated occurrences of
S. nelsonii on the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are negatively
affected (on the low-lying islands) by nonnative plants and by
stochastic events such as tsunami. The small number of remaining
individuals in the main Hawaiian Islands may limit this species'
ability to adapt to environmental changes. Because of these threats, we
find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range,
and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii (NCN) is a climbing vine in the mint
family (Lamiaceae). Stems are quadrangular, 3 to 7 ft (1 to 2 m) long,
either glabrous or pubescent in grooves. Leaves are glossy and 5 in (12
cm) long. Flowers are very dark maroon and narrowly bell-shaped.
Nutlets are 0.2 in (4 mm) long, fleshy, and dark purple (Weller and
Sakai 1999, p. 838; Wagner and Weller 1999, pp. 448-449). In 1994,
after publication of the treatment of Stenogyne by Weller and Sakai (in
Wagner et al. 1990, p. 838), a new occurrence of the plant described as
Stenogyne sherffii was discovered in the Koolau Mountains of Oahu. Upon
further study, the morphological distinctions, coupled with the
geographic separation from the Waianae Mountain individuals, clearly
indicated it was not S. kaalae. The new taxon was identified as a
subspecies of S. kaalae and given the name S. kaalae ssp. sherffii
(Wagner and Weller 1999, pp. 448-449). Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii
occurs in the Koolau Mountains of Oahu, in diverse wet forest at 1,500
to 1,600 ft (450 to 490 m), in the lowland wet ecosystem (Wagner and
Weller 1999, pp. 448-449; HBMP 2010; U.S. Army 2014 database; TNCH
2007).
Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii is historically known from diverse
mesic forest in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu and from the lowland wet
ecosystem of the Koolau Mountains (although, as described above, it was
believed to be a different species, S. sherffii, until the mid-1990s).
This subspecies occurred within a very small range in the northern
Koolau Mountains, at Opaeula and Kawailoa, but is now extinct in the
wild. There are propagules from the original collections that have been
outplanted in the same area (PEPP 2014, p. 169).
Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of Stenogyne kaalae ssp.
sherffii on Oahu, with evidence of the activities of these animals
reported in the areas where this subspecies occurred (HBMP 2010; PEPP
2014, p. 169). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but
public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to
eliminate habitat destruction and modification, or to eliminate
herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR
2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants destroy and modify the native habitat
of S. kaalae ssp. sherffii, and displace this subspecies and other
native Hawaiian plants by competing for water, nutrients, light, and
space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of other
plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, p. 74; HBMP 2010). This subspecies may experience reduced
reproductive vigor due to low levels of genetic variability, leading to
diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, thereby
lessening the probability of its long-term persistence (Barrett and
Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate change may
result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems
that support this species. Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii may be unable
to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may
be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al. 2013, p. 90).
Any remaining occurrences of Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii and
habitat for its reintroduction are at risk, the known individuals were
restricted to a very small area on Oahu, and the area continues to be
negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by
ungulates and direct competition with nonnative plants. The small
number of remaining individuals (ex situ only) may limit this
subspecies' ability to adapt to environmental changes. The effects of
climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because
of these threats, we find that this subspecies should be listed
throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is
unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a
significant portion of its range.
Wikstroemia skottsbergiana (akia) is a shrub or small tree in the
akia family (Thymelaceae). Leaves are pale green, membranous, and 2 to
5 in (6 to 12 cm) long. Flowers are green, with the calyx tube 0.3 to
0.4 in (6 to 10 mm) long and outer lobes 0.1 to 0.2 in (2.5 to 5 mm)
long. Fruit is red, ellipsoid, 0.3 in (8 mm) in diameter (Peterson
1999, p. 1290). Wikstroemia skottsbergiana is recognized as a distinct
taxon in Peterson (1999, p. 1290), the most recently accepted taxonomic
treatment of this species. This species occurs in wet forest on the
island of Kauai, in the lowland wet ecosystem (Peterson 1999, p. 1290;
TNCH 2007), and is historically known from the Wahiawa Mountains,
Hanalei Valley, and Kauhao Valley on the island of Kauai (Peterson
1999, p. 1290). Currently, this species is limited to 30 individuals at
one site (PEPP 2012, p. 26).
Feral pigs destroy and modify the habitat of Wikstroemia
skottsbergiana on Kauai, with evidence of the activities of these
animals reported in the areas where this species occurs (DLNR 2005, in
litt.). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public
hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to
eliminate habitat destruction and modification, or to eliminate
herbivory by these animals (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR
2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants destroy and modify the native habitat
of W. skottsbergiana, and displace this and other native Hawaiian
plants by competing for water, nutrients, light, and space, or they may
produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of other plants (Smith 1985,
pp. 180-250; Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74;
HBMP 2010). Predation of seeds by rats may pose a threat to this
species (DLNR 2005, in litt.). This species may experience reduced
reproductive vigor due to low levels of genetic variability, leading to
diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, thereby
lessening the probability of its long-term persistence (DLNR 2005, in
litt.; Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361).
The remaining occurrences of Wikstroemia skottsbergiana and habitat
for its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are
restricted to a very small area on Kauai and continue to be negatively
affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, direct
competition with nonnative plants, and seed predation by rats. The
small number of remaining individuals may limit this species'

[[Page 58848]]

ability to adapt to environmental changes. Because of these threats, we
find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range,
and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Animals

Band-rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro)
The band-rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro) is a small
seabird, about 8 in (20 cm) long, with a wingspan of about 19 in (47
cm), and about 2 ounces (50 grams) in weight. The tail is only slightly
notched and may appear almost square. Plumage is an overall blackish-
brown with a white band across the ``rump'' (above the tail). This
species typically flies with a relatively shallow wing-beat, and glides
on slightly bowed wings as a regular part of flight (Slotterback 2002,
p. 2). Sexes are alike in size and appearance. The band-rumped storm-
petrel is long-lived (15 to 20 years) and probably does not breed until
its third year (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 48). Vocalizations at breeding
colonies can be used to further distinguish this species from other
seabirds (Allan 1962, p. 279; James and Robertson 1985, pp. 391-392).
The band-rumped storm-petrel is a member of the family Hydrobatidae
(order Procellariiformes) and a member of the Northern Hemisphere
subfamily Hydrobatinae (Slotterback 2002, p. 2). Prior to 1900, this
species had been described as an unnamed petrel in the genus
Thalassidroma (Dole 1869, 1879 in Stejneger 1887, p. 78), as Cymochorea
cryptoleucura (Ridgeway 1882, pp. 337-338), and as Oceanodroma
cryptoleucura (Stejneger 1887, p. 78). After Henshaw's 1902
publication, the Hawaiian population was known as O. castro
cryptoleucura, the Hawaiian storm-petrel (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 47).
Hawaiian names for this bird include oeoe, oweowe, and akeake (Harrison
et al. 1990, p. 47). Austin (1952, pp. 395-396) examined 11 museum
skins from Hawaii and concluded that, although the various populations
exhibited minor size differences, these differences were not
significant and the populations in Hawaii were best considered as
belonging to a single species with no subspecies. Harris (1969, pp. 95,
97-99) also supported this determination. Taxonomists have typically
combined the Pacific populations of band-rumped storm-petrel into a
single taxon, and currently the American Ornithologist's Union (AOU)
regards the species as monotypic (2015, in litt.). However, molecular
studies are ongoing and indicate genetic differences between
populations in different oceans and archipelagos (Friesen et al. 2007a,
pp. 18590-18592; Smith et al. 2007, p. 770), between sympatric
populations that breed in different seasons (e.g., in the Galapagos
Islands; Smith and Friesen 2007, pp. 1599-1560; Smith et al. 2007, p.
756), and potentially between populations on individual Hawaiian
islands (Bogardus 2015, in litt.)
When not at nesting sites, adult band-rumped storm-petrels spend
their time foraging on the open ocean (Slotterback 2002, p. 7). Food is
taken from the ocean surface and consists mostly of small fish and
squid (Slotterback 2002, p. 7; Harris 1969, p. 105). Nests are placed
in crevices, holes, and protected ledges along cliff faces, where a
single egg is laid (Allan 1962, p. 274-275; Harris 1969, pp. 104-105;
Slotterback 2002, p. 11). Adults visit the nest site after dark, where
they can be detected by their distinctive calls. In Hawaii, adults
establish nesting sites in April or May, and the nesting season occurs
during the summer months. The incubation period averages 42 days
(Harris 1969, p. 109), and the young reach fledging stage in 64 to 70
days (Allan 1962, p. 285; Harris 1969, p. 109).
The band-rumped storm-petrel is found in several areas of the
subtropical Pacific and Atlantic Oceans (del Hoyo 1992 in Bird Life
International 2015, in litt.). The Atlantic breeding populations are
restricted to islands in the eastern portions: Cape Verde, Ascension,
Madeira, and the Azores Islands (Allan 1962, p. 274; Harrison 1983, p.
274). Wintering birds may occur as far west as the mid-Atlantic;
however, Atlantic breeding populations are not within the borders of
the United States or areas under U.S. jurisdiction. Three widely
separated breeding areas occur in the Pacific: in Japan, in Hawaii, and
in the Galapagos (Richardson 1957, p. 19; Harris 1969, p. 96; Harrison
1983, p. 274). The Japanese population, which breeds on islets off the
east coast of Japan (Hidejima and Sanganjima in Allan 1962, p. 274;
Harris 1969, p. 96) ranges within 860 mi (1,400 km) east and south of
the breeding colonies.
Populations in Japan and Galapagos total as many as 23,000 pairs
(Boersma and Groom 1993, p. 114); however, a recent survey on Hidejima
Island revealed only 117 burrows, some of which were occupied by
Leach's storm petrels (Biodiversity Center of Japan 2014, p. 1).
Surveyors noted that the nesting area had been affected by extensive
erosion caused by the 2011 earthquake and tsunami (Biodiversity Center
of Japan 2014, p. 1). When Polynesians arrived about 1,500 years ago,
the band-rumped storm-petrel probably was common on all of the main
Hawaiian Islands (Harrison et al. 1990, pp. 47-48). As evidenced by
bones found in middens on Hawaii Island (Harrison et al. 1990, pp. 47-
48) and in excavation sites on Oahu and Molokai (Olson and James 1982,
pp. 30, 33), band-rumped storm-petrels were once numerous enough to be
used as a source of food and possibly feathers (Harrison et al. 1990,
p. 48). In Hawaii, band-rumped storm-petrels are known to nest in
remote cliff locations on Kauai and Lehua Island, and in high-elevation
lava fields on Hawaii Island (Wood et al. 2002, pp. 17-18; Hu 2005,
pers. comm.; VanderWerf et al. 2007, pp. 1, 5; Joyce and Holmes 2010,
p. 3). Vocalizations were heard in Haleakala Crater on Maui in 1992
(Johnston 1992, in Wood et al. 2002, p. 2) and more recently in 2006
(Ackerman 2006, pers. comm.). Based on the scarcity of known breeding
colonies in Hawaii and their remote, inaccessible locations today
compared to prehistoric population levels and distribution, the band-
rumped storm-petrel appears to be is significantly reduced in numbers
and range following human occupation of the Hawaiian Islands, likely as
a result of predation by nonnative mammals and habitat loss.
Band-rumped storm-petrels are regularly observed in coastal waters
around Kauai, Niihau, and Hawaii Island (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49;
Holmes and Joyce 2009, 4 pp.), and in ``rafts'' (regular
concentrations) of a few birds to as many as 100, possibly awaiting
nightfall before coming ashore to breeding colonies. Kauai likely has
the largest population, with an estimated 221 nesting pairs in cliffs
along the north shore of the island in 2002, and additional
observations on the north and south side of the island in 2010
(Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; Johnston 1992, in litt.; Wood et al.
2002, pp. 2-3; Wood 2005, pers. comm.; Holmes and Joyce 2009, 4 pp.;
Joyce and Holmes 2010, pp. 1-3). The band-rumped storm-petrel is also
known from Lehua Island (VanderWerf et al. 2007, p. 1), from Maui
(Hawaii's Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy (CWCS) 2005, in
litt.), Kahoolawe (Olson 1992, pp. 38, 112), and Hawaii Island (CWCS
2005, in litt.). Additional surveys have been conducted on several
islands in recent years, including surveys confirming the presence of
band-rumped storm-petrels at PTA on the island of Hawaii, but further
data are not yet available (Swift 2015, in litt.).

[[Page 58849]]

We do not have a current estimate of total numbers in Hawaii at this
time.
Predation by nonnative animals on nests and adults during the
breeding season is the greatest threat to the Hawaiian population of
the band-rumped storm-petrel. These predators include feral cats (Felis
catus), barn owls (Tyto alba), small Indian mongoose (Herpestes
auropunctatus), black rats (Rattus rattus), Norway rats (R.
norvegicus), and Polynesian rats (R. exulans) (Scott et al. 1986, pp.
1, 363-364; Tomich 1986, pp. 37-45; Harrison et al. 1990, pp. 47-48;
Slotterback 2002, p. 19; Wood 2005, pers. comm.). Attraction of
fledglings to artificial lights and collisions with structures, such as
communication towers and utility lines, is also a threat (Banko et al.
1991, p. 651; Cooper and Day 1998, p. 18; Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49;
Holmes and Joyce 2009, p. 2; Podolsky et al. 1998, pp. 21, 27-30; Reed
et al.1985, p. 377; Telfer et al. 1987, pp. 412-413). Monitoring of
power lines on Kauai has recorded over 1,000 strikes by seabirds
annually (mostly Newell's shearwaters (Puffinus auricularis newelli);
Travers et al. 2014, in litt.) that may result in injury or death.
Recent studies of attraction of seabirds to artificial lights indicate
that 40 percent of those downed by exhaustion (from circling the
lights) are killed by collisions with cars or other objects (Anderson
2014, p. 4-13; Travers et al. 2014, in litt.). Since 1979, 40 band-
rumped storm-petrels downed by light attraction have been retrieved on
Kauai by the Save Our Shearwater program (Anderson 2014, p. 4-13). The
small numbers of these birds and their nesting areas on remote cliffs
make population-level impacts difficult to document. However, the band-
rumped storm-petrel has similar behavior, life history traits, and
habitat needs to the Newell's shearwater, a threatened species that has
sustained major losses as a result of light attraction and collisions
with lines or other objects. Therefore, we conclude that these are
potential threats to the band-rumped storm-petrel as well. Erosion and
landslides at nest sites caused by nonnative ungulates is a potential
threat in some locations on the island of Kauai. Regulatory mechanisms
(e.g., the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA; 16 U.S.C. 703 et seq.))
contribute minimally to the active recovery and management of this
species. Other potential threats include commercial fisheries, ocean
pollution, and the small population size and limited distribution in
Hawaii (Soul[eacute] 1987, p. 8; Lande et al. 1988, pp. 1455, 1458-
1459; Harrison et al. 1990, p. 50; Furness 2003, p. 33). A single
hurricane during the breeding season could cause reproductive failure
and kill a significant number of adult birds. In this proposed rule,
our proposed listing determination would apply only to the Hawaiian
population of the band-rumped storm-petrel (see ``Distinct Population
Segment,'' below). Because of the deleterious and cumulative effects to
the band-rumped storm-petrel caused by the threats described above, we
find that the Hawaii population should be listed as endangered
throughout its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to
analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion
of its range.
Yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus spp.)
Bees in the genus Hylaeus (family Colletidae), which includes H.
anthracinus, are commonly known as yellow-faced bees or masked bees for
their yellow-to-white facial markings. Hylaeus bees are similar in
structure to other hymenopterans (bees, wasps, and ants) in that adults
have three main body parts--a head, thorax, and abdomen. One pair of
antennae arises from the front of the head, between the eyes. Two pairs
of wings and three pairs of legs are attached to the thorax, and the
abdomen is composed of multiple segments (Borror et al. 1989, pp. 665-
666). All Hylaeus bees roughly resemble small wasps in appearance;
however, Hylaeus bees have plumose (branched) hairs on the body that
are longest on the sides of the thorax, which readily distinguish them
from wasps (Michener 2000, p. 55).
Bees in the family Colletidae are also referred to as plasterer
bees because they line their nests with a self-secreted, cellophane-
like material. Eggs hatch and develop into larvae (immature stage) and
as larvae grow, they molt through three successive stages (instars),
then change into pupae (a resting form) in which they metamorphose and
emerge as adults (Michener 2000, p. 24). The diet of the larval stage
is unknown, although it is presumed the larvae feed on stores of pollen
and nectar collected and deposited in the nest by the adult female.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus anthracinus)
Hylaeus anthracinus has clear to smoky wings and black legs. The
male has a single large yellow spot on the face, and below the antennal
sockets the face is yellow. The female is entirely black and can be
distinguished by black hairs on the end of the abdomen and an unusual
mandible with three teeth, a characteristic shared only with H.
flavifrons, a closely related species on Kauai (Daly and Magnacca 2003,
p. 53). Hylaeus anthracinus was first described as Prosopis anthracina
by Smith in 1873 (in Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 55) and transferred to
Nesoprosopis 20 years later (Perkins 1899, p. 75). Nesoprosopis was
reduced to a subgenus of Hylaeus in 1923 (Meade-Waldo 1923, p. 1).
Although the distinctness of this species remains unquestioned, recent
genetic evidence suggests H. anthracinus may be composed of three
cryptic (not recognized) species or subspecies that represent
populations on Hawaii, Maui and Kahoolawe, and Molokai and Oahu
(Magnacca and Brown 2010, pp. 5-7). However, this has not been
established scientifically; therefore, we treat H. anthracinus as a
single species.
Hylaeus anthracinus is a solitary bee, and after mating, females
seek existing cavities in coral rubble or rocky substrates for nest
construction (Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 13-14). Adult bees have been
observed visiting the flowers of native coastal plants (Argemone glauca
(pua kala), Chamaesyce celastroides (akoko), C. degeneri (akoko),
Heliotropium anomalum (hinahina), H. foertherianum (tree heliotrope),
Myoporum sandwicense (naio), Sesbania tomentosa (ohai), Scaevola
taccada (naupaka kahakai), and Sida fallax (ilima)). This species has
also been collected from inside the fruit capsule of Kadua coriacea
(kiolele) (Magnacca 2005a, p. 2).
Hylaeus anthracinus was historically known from numerous coastal
and lowland dry forest habitats up to 2,000 ft (610 m) in elevation on
the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu, and in some
areas was ``locally abundant'' (Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 13-14).
Between 1997 and 1998, surveys for Hawaiian Hylaeus were conducted at
43 sites that were either historical collecting localities or potential
suitable habitat. Hylaeus anthracinus was observed at 13 of the 43
survey sites, but was not found at any of the 9 historically occupied
sites (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 217; Magnacca 2007a, p. 44). Several
of the historical collection sites have been urbanized or are dominated
by nonnative vegetation (Liebherr and Polhemus 1997, pp. 346-347; Daly
and Magnacca 2003, p. 55; Magnacca 2007b, pp. 186-188). Currently, H.
anthracinus is known from 15 small patches of coastal and lowland dry
forest habitat (Magnacca 2005a, p. 2); 5 locations on the island of
Hawaii in the coastal and lowland dry ecosystems; 2 locations on Maui
in the coastal and lowland dry ecosystems; 1 location on Kahoolawe in
the lowland dry ecosystem; 3 locations

[[Page 58850]]

on Molokai in the coastal ecosystem, and 4 locations on Oahu in the
coastal ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 217; Magnacca 2005a, p.
2; Magnacca 2007a, p. 44; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 13-14). These 15
locations supported small populations of H. anthracinus, but the number
of individual bees is unknown. In 2004, a single individual was
collected in montane dry forest on the island of Hawaii (possibly a
vagrant); however, the presence of additional individuals has not been
confirmed at this site (Magnacca 2005a, p. 2). Although this species
was previously unknown from the island of Kahoolawe, it was observed at
one location on the island in 2002 (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 55).
Additionally, during surveys between 1997 and 2008, H. anthracinus was
absent from 17 other sites on Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu
with potentially suitable habitat from which other species of Hylaeus
were collected (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 4, 55; Magnacca 2008, pers.
comm.).
Habitat destruction and modification by urbanization and land use
conversion leads to the direct fragmentation of foraging and nesting
areas of Hylaeus anthracinus. Habitat destruction and modification by
nonnative plants adversely impact native Hawaiian plant species by
modifying the availability of light, altering soil-water regimes,
modifying nutrient cycling, altering the fire characteristics
(increasing the fire cycle), and ultimately converting native dominated
plant communities to nonnative plant communities; such habitat
destruction and modification result in removal of food sources and
nesting sites for the H. anthracinus. Habitat modification and
destruction by nonnative animals such as feral pigs (Sus scrofa), goats
(Capra hircus), axis deer (Axis axis), and cattle (Bos taurus), are
considered one of the primary factors underlying degradation of native
vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands, and these habitat changes also
remove food sources and nesting sites for H. anthracinus (Stone 1985,
pp. 262-263; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 60-66, 73). Fire is a
potential threat to H. anthracinus, as it destroys native plant
communities on which it depends, and opens habitat for increased
invasion by nonnative plants. Random, naturally occurring events such
as hurricanes and drought can modify and destroy habitat of H.
anthracinus by creating disturbed areas conducive to invasion by
nonnative plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger
1998, pp. 1-2). Fire is a potential threat to H. anthracinus, as it
destroys native coastal and lowland dry plant communities on which the
species depends, and opens habitat for increased invasion by nonnative
plants. Because of the greater frequency, intensity, and duration of
fires that have resulted from the human alteration of landscapes and
the introduction of nonnative plants, especially grasses, fires are now
more destructive to native Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000,
p. 172), and a single grass-fueled fire often kills most native trees
and shrubs in the area (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could
destroy food and nesting resources for H. anthracinus. The numbers of
wildfires and the acreages involved are increasing in the main Hawaiian
Islands; however, their occurrences and locations are unpredictable,
and could affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima 1998,
in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.;
Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in
litt.). Predation by nonnative ants including the big-headed ant
(Pheidole megacephala), the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis gracilipes),
Solenopsis papuana (NCN), and S. geminata (NCN) on Hylaeus egg, larvae,
and pupal stages is a threat to H. anthracinus, and ants also compete
with H. anthracinus for their nectar food source (Howarth 1985, p. 155;
Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly and
Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation by nonnative western
yellow jacket wasps is a threat to H. anthracinus because the wasp is
an aggressive, generalist predator, and occurs in great numbers in many
habitat types, from sea level to over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), including
areas where H. anthracinus and other yellow-faced bees occur (Gambino
et al. 1987, p. 169). Existing regulatory mechanisms and agency
policies do not address the primary threats to the yellow-faced bees
and their habitat from nonnative ungulates. Competition with nonnative
bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, Australian colletid bees) for nectar
and pollen is a potential threat to H. anthracinus (Magnacca 2007b, p.
188). The small number of populations and individuals of H. anthracinus
makes this species more vulnerable to extinction because of the higher
risks from genetic bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, and
localized catastrophes such as hurricanes and drought (Daly and
Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007b, p. 173). Changes in precipitation
resulting from the effects of climate change may degrade habitat for
all Hylaeus species; however, we are unable to determine the extent of
these negative impacts at this time.
The remaining populations of H. anthracinus and its habitat are at
risk. The known individuals are restricted to 15 locations on Hawaii,
Maui, Kahoolawe, Molokai, and Oahu continue to be negatively affected
by habitat destruction and modification by urbanization and land-use
conversion, and by habitat destruction and removal of food and nesting
sites by nonnative ungulates and nonnative plants. Habitat destruction
by fire is a potential threat. Randomly occurring events such as
hurricanes and drought may modify habitat and remove food and nesting
sources for H. anthracinus. Predation by nonnative ants and wasps is a
threat. Existing regulatory mechanisms and agency policies do not
address the primary threats to the yellow-faced bees and their habitat
from nonnative ungulates. Competition with nonnative bees for food and
nesting sites is a potential threat. The small number of remaining
populations may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental
changes. Because of these threats, we find that Hylaeus anthracinus
should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find
that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or
threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus assimulans)
Hylaeus assimulans is distinguished by its large size relative to
other coastal Hylaeus species and by its slightly smoky to smoky-
colored wings and black legs. The male is black with yellow face marks,
with an almost entirely yellow clypeus (lower face region) with
additional marks on the sides that narrow dorsally (towards the top).
The male also has brown appressed (flattened) hairs on the tip of the
abdomen. The female is entirely black, large-bodied, and has distinct
punctuation on the abdomen (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 56). Hylaeus
assimulans was first described as Nesoprosopis assimulans (Perkins
1899, pp. 75, 101-102). Nesoprosopis was reduced to a subgenus of
Hylaeus in 1923 (Meade-Waldo 1923, p. 1). The species was most recently
described as Hylaeus assimulans by Daly and Magnacca in 2003 (pp. 55-
56).
Nests of H. assimulans are usually constructed opportunistically
within existing burrows, or other similarly small natural cavities
under bark or rocks that they suit to their own needs (Magnacca 2005b,
p. 2). Adult bees have been observed visiting the flowers of its likely
primary nesting native host plant,

[[Page 58851]]

Sida fallax (ilima), as well as the flowers of native Lipochaeta lobata
(nehe) (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 58). Hylaeus assimulans appears to
be closely associated with plants in the genus Sida, and studies thus
far suggest this yellow-faced bee species may be more common where this
plant is abundant (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 58, 217; Magnacca 2007b,
p. 183). Recent survey efforts indicate that H. assimulans is more
common in dry forest, which may be related to the greater abundance of
Sida in the understory (Magnacca 2005b, p. 2). It is likely that H.
assimulans visits several other native plants, including Acacia koa
(koa), Metrosideros polymorpha (ohia), Leptecophylla tameiameiae
(pukiawe), Scaevola sp. (naupaka), and Chamaescye sp. (akoko), which
are known to be frequented by other Hylaeus species (Magnacca 2005,
pers. comm.).
Historically, Hylaeus assimulans was known from numerous coastal
and lowland dry forest habitats up to 2,000 ft (610 m) in elevation on
the islands of Maui (coastal and lowland dry ecosystems), Lanai
(lowland dry ecosystem), and Oahu (coastal and lowland dry ecosystem).
There are no collections from Molokai although it is likely H.
assimulans occurred there because all other species of Hylaeus known
from Maui, Lanai, and Oahu also occurred on Molokai (Daly and Magnacca
2003, pp. 217-229). Between 1997 and 1998, surveys for Hawaiian Hylaeus
were conducted at 25 sites on Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, and
Oahu. Hylaeus assimulans was absent from 6 of its historical localities
on Maui, Lanai, and Oahu, and was not observed at the remaining 19
sites with potentially suitable habitat (Xerces Society 2009, p. 4;
Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 56, 217; Magnacca 2005b, p. 2; Magnacca
2007b, pp. 177, 181, 183). Currently, H. assimulans is known from a few
small patches of coastal and lowland dry forest habitat (Magnacca
2005b, p. 2); two locations on Maui in the lowland dry ecosystem; one
location on Kahoolawe in the coastal ecosystem; and two locations on
Lanai in the lowland dry ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 58;
Magnacca 2005b, p. 2). This species has likely been extirpated from
Oahu because it has not been observed since Perkin's 1899 surveys, and
was not found during recent surveys of potentially suitable habitat on
Oahu at Kaena Point, Makapuu, and Kalaeloa (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p.
217; Magnacca 2005b, p. 2).
Habitat destruction and modification due to urbanization and land
use conversion leads to fragmentation and eventual loss of, foraging
and nesting areas for Hylaeus assimulans. Habitat destruction and
modification by nonnative plants (Asystasia gangetica (Chinese violet),
Atriplex semibaccata, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chloris barbata (swollen
fingergrass), Digitaria insularis (sourgrass), Leucaena leucocephala
(koa haole), Panicum maximum (guinea grass), Pluchea indica (Indian
fleabane), P. carolinensis (sourbush), and Verbesina encelioides
(golden crown-beard)) adversely impact native Hawaiian plant species by
modifying the availability of light, altering soil-water regimes,
modifying nutrient cycling, altering the fire characteristics, and
ultimately converting native dominated plant communities to nonnative
plant communities; such habitat destruction and modification result in
removal of food sources and nesting sites for H. assimulans. Habitat
modification and destruction by nonnative animals, such as feral pigs,
goats, axis deer, and cattle, is are considered one of the primary
factors underlying destruction of native vegetation in the Hawaiian
Islands, and these habitat changes also remove food sources and nesting
sites of H. assimulans (Stone 1985, pp. 262-263; Cuddihy and Stone
1990, pp. 60-66, 73). Fire is a potential threat to H. assimulans, as
it destroys native coastal and lowland dry plant communities on which
the species depends, and opens habitat for increased invasion by
nonnative plants. Because of the greater frequency, intensity, and
duration of fires that have resulted from the human alteration of
landscapes and the introduction of nonnative plants, especially
grasses, fires are now more destructive to native Hawaiian ecosystems
(Brown and Smith 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-fueled fire often
kills most native trees and shrubs in the area (D'Antonio and Vitousek
1992, p. 74), and could destroy food and nesting resources for H.
assimulans. The numbers of wildfires, and the acreages involved, are
increasing in the main Hawaiian Islands; however, their occurrences and
locations are unpredictable, and could affect habitat for yellow-faced
bees at any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. 3, p.
3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific
Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally occurring events
such as hurricanes and drought can modify and destroy habitat of H.
assimulans by creating disturbed areas conducive to invasion by
nonnative plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger
1998, pp. 1-2). Predation by nonnative ants (the big-headed ant, the
yellow crazy ant, Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) on Hylaeus egg,
larvae, and pupal stages is a threat to H. assimulans; additionally,
ants compete with H. assimulans for their nectar food source (Howarth
1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188,
209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation by
nonnative western yellow jacket wasps is a potential threat to H.
assimulans because the wasp is an aggressive, generalist predator, and
occurs in great numbers in many habitat types, from sea level to over
8,000 ft (2,450 m), including areas where H. assimulans and other
yellow-faced bees occur (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169). Existing
regulatory mechanisms and agency policies do not address the primary
threats to the yellow-faced bees and their habitat from nonnative
ungulates. Competition with nonnative bees (honeybees, carpenter bees,
Australian colletid bees) for nectar and pollen is a potential threat
to H. assimulans (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The small number of
populations and individuals of H. assimulans makes this species more
vulnerable to extinction because of the higher risks from genetic
bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, and localized
catastrophes such as hurricanes and drought (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p.
3; Magnacca 2007b, p. 173). Changes in precipitation resulting from the
effects of climate change may degrade habitat for all Hylaeus species;
however, we are unable to determine the extent of these negative
impacts at this time.
The remaining populations of H. assimulans and its habitat are at
risk. The known individuals are restricted to 5 locations on Maui,
Kahoolawe, and Lanai continue to be negatively affected by habitat
destruction and modification by urbanization and land-use conversion,
and by habitat destruction and removal of food and nesting sites by
nonnative ungulates and nonnative plants. Habitat destruction by fire
is a potential threat. Randomly occurring events such as hurricanes and
drought may modify habitat and remove food and nesting sources for H.
assimulans. Predation by nonnative ants and wasps is a threat. Existing
regulatory mechanisms and agency policies do not address the primary
threats to the yellow-faced bees and their habitat from nonnative
ungulates. Competition with nonnative bees for food and nesting sites
is a potential threat. The small number of remaining populations may
limit this species' ability to adapt to

[[Page 58852]]

environmental changes. Because of these threats, we find that H.
assimulans should be listed throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus facilis)
Hylaeus facilis is a medium-sized bee with smoky-colored wings. The
male has an oval yellow mark on the face that covers the entire
clypeus, and a narrow stripe beside the eyes, but is otherwise
unmarked. The large, externally visible gonoforceps (paired lateral
outer parts of the male genitalia) distinguish H. facilis from the
closely related H. simplex (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 83). The female
is entirely black and indistinguishable from females of H. difficilis
and H. simplex (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 56). Hylaeus facilis is a
member of the H. difficilis species group, and is closely related to H.
chlorostictus and H. simplex. Hylaeus facilis was first described as
Prosopis facilis by Smith in 1879 (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 80),
based on a specimen erroneously reported from Maui. According to
Blackburn and Cameron (1886 and 1887), the species' type locality was
Pauoa Valley on Oahu (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 80). The species was
later transferred to the genus Nesoprosopis (Perkins 1899, pp. 75, 77).
Nesoprosopis was subsequently reduced to a subgenus of Hylaeus (Meade-
Waldo 1923, p. 1). The species was most recently recognized by Daly and
Magnacca (2003, p. 80) as H. facilis.
Nests of Hylaeus facilis are probably constructed opportunistically
within existing burrows, or other similarly small natural cavities
under bark or rocks (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 83; Magnacca 2005c, p.
2). The native host plants of adult H. facilis are unknown, but it is
likely this species visits several plants other Hylaeus species are
known to frequent, including Acacia koa, Metrosideros polymorpha,
Leptecophylla tameiameiae, Scaevola spp., and Chamaesyce spp. (Daly and
Magnacca 2003, p. 11). Hylaeus facilis has been observed visiting
nonnative Heliotropium foertherianum for nectar and pollen (Magnacca
2007b, p. 181).
Historically, Hylaeus facilis was known from Maui, Lanai, Molokai,
and Oahu, in dry shrubland to wet forest from sea level to 3,000 ft
(1,000 m) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 93; Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp.
81, 83). Perkins (1899, p. 77) remarked H. facilis was among the most
common and widespread Hylaeus species on Oahu and all of Maui Nui
(Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) (Magnacca 2007b, p. 183). Although the
species was widely collected, it likely prefers dry to mesic forest and
shrubland (Magnacca 2005c, p. 2), which are increasingly rare and
patchily distributed habitats (Smith 1985, pp. 227-233; Juvik and Juvik
1998, p. 124; Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 66-67, 75; Magnacca 2005c, p. 2).
Researchers believe the wet forest site on Oahu where H. facilis was
observed likely had an open understory (mesic conditions), and
represents an outlier or residual population (Liehberr and Polhemus
1997, p. 347; Perkins 1899, p. 76). Hylaeus facilis has almost entirely
disappeared from most of its historical range (Maui, coastal and
lowland mesic; Lanai, lowland dry and lowland mesic; and Oahu, coastal
and lowland dry) (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 7; Magnacca 2007b, p.
183). Between 1998 and 2006, 39 sites on Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu
were surveyed, including 13 historical sites. Hylaeus facilis was
absent from all 13 localities (Magnacca 2007b, p. 183) and was not
observed at 26 additional sites with potentially suitable habitat (Daly
and Magnacca 2003, pp. 7, 81-82; Magnacca 2007b, p. 183). Likely
extirpated from Lanai, H. facilis is currently known from only two
locations, one on Molokai in the coastal ecosystem, and one on Oahu in
the lowland mesic ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 81-82;
Magnacca 2005c, p. 2). In addition, in 1990, a single individual was
collected on Maui near Makawao at 1,500 ft (460 m); however, this site
is urbanized and devoid of native plants, and it is likely this
collection was a vagrant individual.
Habitat destruction and modification by urbanization and land use
conversion leads to fragmentation of, and eventual loss of, foraging
and nesting areas of Hylaeus facilis. Habitat destruction and
modification by nonnative plants adversely impact native Hawaiian plant
species by modifying the availability of light, altering soil-water
regimes, modifying nutrient cycling, altering the fire characteristics,
and ultimately converting native dominated plant communities to
nonnative plant communities; such habitat destruction and modification
results in removal of food sources and nesting sites for the H.
facilis. In addition to the nonnative plant species noted above that
modify and destroy habitat of H. assimulans, Brachiaria mutica
(California grass), Prosopis pallida, Psidium cattleianum (strawberry
guava), and Rubus spp. are noted to negatively affect the habitat of H.
facilis (Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) 2007, pp. 20-
22; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 105). Habitat modification and
destruction by nonnative animals, such as feral pigs, goats, axis deer,
and cattle, are considered one of the primary factors underlying
destruction of native vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands, and these
habitat changes also remove food sources and nesting sites for H.
facilis (Stone 1985, pp. 262-263; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 60-66,
73). Fire is a potential threat to H. facilis, as it destroys native
plant communities on which the species depends, and opens habitat for
increased invasion by nonnative plants. Because of the greater
frequency, intensity, and duration of fires that have resulted from the
human alteration of landscapes and the introduction of nonnative
plants, especially grasses, fires are now more destructive to native
Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-
fueled fire often kills most native trees and shrubs in the area
(D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could destroy food and nesting
resources for H. facilis. The numbers of wildfires, and the acreages
involved, are increasing in the main Hawaiian Islands; however, their
occurrences and locations are unpredictable, and could affect habitat
for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of Maui
2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010,
in litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally
occurring events such as hurricanes and drought can modify and destroy
habitat of H. facilis by creating disturbed areas conducive to invasion
by nonnative plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671;
Businger 1998, pp. 1-2). Predation by nonnative ants (the big-headed
ant, the yellow crazy ant, Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) on
Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal stages is a threat to H. facilis;
additionally, ants compete with H. facilis for their nectar food source
(Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002,
pp. 188, 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155).
Predation by nonnative western yellow jacket wasps is a potential
threat to H. facilis because the wasp is an aggressive, generalist
predator, and occurs in great numbers in many habitat types, from sea
level to over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), including areas where H. assimulans
and other yellow-faced bees occur (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169).
Existing regulatory mechanisms and agency policies do not address the
primary threats to the yellow-faced bees and their habitat from
nonnative ungulates. Competition with nonnative bees (honeybees,
carpenter bees, Australian

[[Page 58853]]

colletid bees) for nectar and pollen is a potential threat to H.
facilis (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The small number of populations and
individuals of H. facilis makes this species more vulnerable to
extinction because of the higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, random
demographic fluctuations, and localized catastrophes such as hurricanes
and drought (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007b, p. 173).
Changes in precipitation resulting from the effects of climate change
may degrade habitat for all Hylaeus species; however, we are unable to
determine the extent of these negative impacts at this time.
The remaining populations of Hylaeus facilis and its habitat are at
risk. The known individuals are restricted to one location on Molokai
and one location on Oahu, and continue to be negatively affected by
habitat destruction and modification by urbanization and land-use
conversion, and by habitat destruction and removal of food and nesting
sites by nonnative ungulates and nonnative plants. Habitat destruction
by fire is a potential threat. Randomly occurring events such as
hurricanes and drought may modify habitat and remove food and nesting
sources for H. facilis. Predation by nonnative ants and wasps is a
threat. Existing regulatory mechanisms and agency policies do not
address the primary threats to the yellow-faced bees and their habitat
from nonnative ungulates. Competition with nonnative bees for food and
nesting sites is a potential threat. The small number of remaining
populations may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental
changes. Because of these threats, we find that H. facilis should be
listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is
unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a
significant portion of its range.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus hilaris)
Hylaeus hilaris is distinguished by its large size (male wing
length is 0.19 in (4.7 mm)) relative to other coastal Hylaeus species.
The wings of this species are slightly smoky to smoky-colored, and it
is the most colorful of the Hylaeus species. The face of the male is
almost entirely yellow, with yellow markings on the legs and thorax,
and the metasoma (posterior portion of the abdomen) are usually
predominantly red. Females are drab colored, with various brownish
markings. As with other cleptoparasitic species (those that steal food
and nests of other bees for their own young; see below), H. hilaris
lacks the specialized pollen-sweeping hairs of the front legs (Daly and
Magnacca 2003, pp. 9, 106). It is also one of only two Hawaiian Hylaeus
species to possess apical (at the end of a structure) bands of fine
white hairs on the segments of the metasoma. Hylaeus hilaris was first
described as Prosopis hilaris by Smith in 1879 (in Daly and Magnacca
2003, pp. 103-104), and transferred to the genus Nesoprosopis 20 years
later (Perkins 1899, p. 75). Nesoprosopis was reduced to a subgenus of
Hylaeus in 1923 (Meade-Waldo 1923, p. 1). In 2003, Daly and Magnacca
(pp. 103-104) described the species as Hylaeus hilaris, and is the most
recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species.
Most adult Hylaeus species consume nectar for energy; however, H.
hilaris has yet to be observed actually feeding from flowers. Hylaeus
hilaris and four related species (H. hostilis, H. inquilina, H.
sphecodoides, and H. volatilis) are known as cleptoparasites or cuckoo
bees. The mated female does not construct a nest or collect pollen, but
instead enters the nest of another species and lays an egg in a
provisioned cell. Upon hatching, the larva of H. hilaris kills the host
egg, consumes the provisions, pupates, and eventually emerges as an
adult. This species is known to lay its eggs within nests of H.
anthracinus, H. assimulans, and H. longiceps (Perkins 1913, p. lxxxi).
Hylaeus hilaris depends on related Hylaeus host species to support
larval life stage, its population size is observed to be much smaller
than its host species, and this species is probably the most at risk of
extinction because of these features (Magnacca 2007b, p. 181).
Historically, Hylaeus hilaris was known from coastal habitat on
Maui, Lanai, and Molokai, and from lowland dry habitat on Maui. It is
believed to have occurred along much of the coast of these islands
because its primary hosts, H. anthracinus, H. assimulans, and H.
longiceps likely occurred throughout this habitat. First collected on
Maui in 1879, H. hilaris has only been collected twice in the last 100
years. Hylaeus hilaris was absent from three of its historical
population sites revisited by researchers between 1998 and 2006
(Magnacca 2007b, p. 181). It was also not observed in 2003 at 10
additional sites with potentially suitable habitat (Daly and Magnacca
2003, pp. 103, 106). Currently, the only known population of H. hilaris
is located on The Nature Conservancy's Moomomi Preserve on Molokai, in
the coastal ecosystem (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 103, 106; Magnacca
2005d, p. 2; Magnacca 2007b, p. 181).
Because Hylaeus hilaris is an obligate parasite on H. anthracinus,
H. assimulans, and H. longiceps, its occurrences are determined by the
remaining populations of these three other species. Habitat destruction
and modification by urbanization and land use conversion leads to
fragmentation of, and eventual loss of, foraging and nesting areas of
H. hilaris, and of those Hylaeus species that H. hilaris is dependent
upon. Habitat destruction and modification by nonnative plants
adversely impact native Hawaiian plant species by modifying the
availability of light, altering soil-water regimes, modifying nutrient
cycling, altering the fire characteristics, and ultimately converting
native dominated plant communities to nonnative plant communities; such
habitat destruction and modification result in removal of food sources
and nesting sites for the Hylaeus species that H. hilaris is dependent
upon. Nonnative plant species that modify and destroy habitat of H.
hilaris are noted in the description for H. assimulans, above. Habitat
modification and destruction by nonnative animals, such as feral pigs,
goats, axis deer, and cattle, are considered one of the primary factors
underlying destruction of native vegetation in the Hawaiian Islands,
and these habitat changes also remove food sources and nesting sites
for the host species of H. hilaris (Stone 1985, pp. 262-263; Cuddihy
and Stone 1990, pp. 60-66, 73). Fire is a potential threat to H.
hilaris, as it destroys native plant communities, and opens habitat for
increased invasion by nonnative plants. Because of the greater
frequency, intensity, and duration of fires that have resulted from the
human alteration of landscapes and the introduction of nonnative
plants, especially grasses, fires are now more destructive to native
Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-
fueled fire often kills most native trees and shrubs in the area
(D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could destroy food and nesting
resources for Hylaeus species which H. hilaris parasitizes. The numbers
of wildfires, and the acreages involved, are increasing in the main
Hawaiian Islands; however, their occurrences and locations are
unpredictable, and could affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at any
time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton
2009, in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster
Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally occurring events such as
hurricanes and drought can modify and destroy habitat of H. hilaris by
creating disturbed areas conducive to invasion by nonnative plants
(Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1-2).

[[Page 58854]]

Predation by nonnative ants (the big-headed ant, the long-legged ant,
Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) on Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal
stages is also a threat to H. hilaris (Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et
al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly and Magnacca
2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Predation by nonnative western yellow
jacket wasps is a potential threat to H. hilaris because the wasp is an
aggressive, generalist predator, and occurs in great numbers in many
habitat types, from sea level to over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), including
areas where H. hilaris and other yellow-faced bees occur (Gambino et
al. 1987, p. 169). Existing regulatory mechanisms and agency policies
do not address the primary threats to the yellow-faced bees and their
habitat from nonnative ungulates. Competition with nonnative bees
(honeybees, carpenter bees, Australian colletid bees) for nectar and
pollen is a potential threat to the host yellow-faced bees of H.
hilaris (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The small number of populations and
individuals of H. hilaris makes this species more vulnerable to
extinction because of the higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, random
demographic fluctuations, and localized catastrophes such as hurricanes
and drought (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007b, p. 173).
Changes in precipitation resulting from the effects of climate change
may degrade habitat for all Hylaeus species; however, we are unable to
determine the extent of these negative impacts at this time. Because of
these threats, we find that Hylaeus hilaris should be listed throughout
all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to
analyze whether it is endangered threatened or in a significant portion
of its range.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus kuakea)
Hylaeus kuakea is a small, black bee with slightly smoky-colored
wings. This species does not fit into any of the well-defined Hylaeus
species groups. Its facial marks are similar to those of the H.
difficilis group and to H. anthracinus, but it has an unusual ivory
facial marking covering the clypeus. Hylaeus kuakea has a denser, more
distinct arrangement of setae (sensory hairs) on the head and narrow
marks next to the compound eyes (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 125;
Magnacca 2005e, p. 2). Only four adult male specimens have been
collected; females have yet to be collected or observed. Hylaeus kuakea
was first described by Daly and Magnacca (2003, pp. 1, 125-127) from
specimens collected in 1997 in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu.
Hylaeus kuakea is believed to be a stem-nesting species and likely
constructs nests opportunistically within existing burrows inside dead
twigs or plant stems (Magnacca and Danforth 2006, p. 403). The native
host plants of the adult H. kuakea are unknown, but it is likely this
species visits several plants other Hylaeus species are known to
frequent, including Acacia koa, Metrosideros polymorpha, Leptecophylla
tameiameiae, Scaevola spp., and Chamaesyce spp. (Magnacca 2005e, p. 2).
Because the first collection of Hylaeus kuakea was not made until
1997, its historical range is unknown (Magnacca 2005e, p. 2; Magnacca
2007a, p. 184). Phylogenetically, H. kuakea belongs in a species-group
primarily including species inhabiting mesic forests (Magnacca and
Danforth 2006, p. 405). Only four individuals (all males) have been
collected from two different sites in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu in
the lowland mesic ecosystem (Magnacca 2007b, p. 184). The species has
never been collected in any other habitat type or area, including some
sites that have been more thoroughly surveyed (Magnacca 2011, in
litt.). Not all potentially suitable habitat has been surveyed due to
the remote and rugged locations, small size, rareness, and distant
spacing among large areas of nonnative forest (Smith 1985, pp. 227-233;
Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 124; Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 66-67, 75).
Habitat destruction and modification by feral pigs leads to
fragmentation, and eventual loss, of foraging and nesting areas of
Hylaeus kuakea. Habitat destruction and modification by nonnative
plants adversely impact native Hawaiian plant species by modifying the
availability of light, altering soil-water regimes, modifying nutrient
cycling, altering the fire characteristics, and ultimately converting
native dominated plant communities to nonnative plant communities; such
habitat destruction and modification result in removal of food sources
and nesting sites for H. kuakea. Nonnative plant species that modify
and destroy habitat of H. kuakea are noted in the descriptions for H.
assimulans and H. facilis, above. Fire is a potential threat to H.
kuakea because it destroys native plant communities and opens habitat
for increased invasion by nonnative plants. Because of the greater
frequency, intensity, and duration of fires that have resulted from the
human alteration of landscapes and the introduction of nonnative
plants, especially grasses, fires are now more destructive to native
Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000, p. 172), and a single grass-
fueled fire often kills most native trees and shrubs in the area
(D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could destroy food and nesting
resources for H. kuakea. The numbers of wildfires, and the acreages
involved, are increasing in the main Hawaiian Islands; however, their
occurrences and locations are unpredictable, and could affect habitat
for yellow-faced bees at any time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of Maui
2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010,
in litt.; Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). The only known
occurrences of H. kuakea are close to military training areas, where
the risk of fire is elevated. Several fires on Oahu have impacted rare
or endangered species in lowland mesic habitat similar to that where H.
kuakea has been found (TNC 2005, in litt.; U.S. Army Garrison 2007, p.
3; DLNR 2014, in litt.; KHON 2014, in litt.). Random, naturally
occurring events such as hurricanes and drought can modify and destroy
habitat of H. kuakea by creating disturbed areas conducive to invasion
by nonnative plants (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671;
Businger 1998, pp. 1-2). Predation by nonnative ants (the big-headed
ant, the long-legged ant, Solenopsis papuana, and S. geminata) on
Hylaeus egg, larvae, and pupal stages is a threat to H. kuakea;
additionally, ants compete with H. kuakea for their nectar food source
(Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002,
pp. 188, 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155).
Predation by nonnative western yellow jacket wasps is a potential
threat to H. kuakea because the wasp is an aggressive, generalist
predator, and occurs in great numbers in many habitat types, from sea
level to over 8,000 ft (2,450 m), including areas where H. kuakea and
other yellow-faced bees occur (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169). Existing
regulatory mechanisms and agency policies do not address the primary
threats to the yellow-faced bees and their habitat from nonnative
ungulates. Competition with nonnative bees (honeybees, carpenter bees,
Australian colletid bees) for nectar and pollen is a potential threat
to H. kuakea (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188). The small number of populations
and individuals of H. kuakea makes this species more vulnerable to
extinction because of the higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, random
demographic fluctuations, and localized catastrophes such as hurricanes
and drought (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007, p. 173).
Changes in precipitation resulting

[[Page 58855]]

from the effects of climate change may degrade habitat for all Hylaeus
species; however, we are unable to determine the extent of these
negative impacts at this time. Because of these threats, we find that
Hylaeus kuakea should be listed throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus longiceps)
Hylaeus longiceps is a small to medium-sized black bee with clear
to slightly smoky-colored wings. Its distinguishing characteristics are
its long head and the facial marks of the male. The lower face of the
male is marked with a yellow band that extends at the sides of the face
in a broad stripe above the antennal sockets. The area above the
clypeus is very long and narrow, and the scape (the first antennal
segment) is noticeably twice as long as it is wide. The female is
entirely black and unmarked (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 133). Hylaeus
longiceps was first described in 1899 as Nesoprosopis longiceps
(Perkins 1899, pp. 75, 98), and then Nesoprosopis was reduced to a
subgenus of Hylaeus in 1923 (Meade-Waldo 1923, p. 1). Daly and Magnacca
(2003, pp. 133-134) most recently described the species as H.
longiceps.
Hylaeus longiceps is a ground-nesting species, constructing nests
opportunistically within existing burrows or small natural cavities
under bark or rocks (Magnacca 2005f, p. 2). Adult bees have been
observed visiting the flowers of a wide variety of native plants
including Chamaesyce degeneri (akoko), Myoporum sandwicense (naio),
Santalum ellipticum (iliahialoe), Scaevola coriacea (dwarf naupaka),
Sesbania tomentosa (ohai), Sida fallax (ilima), and Vitex rotundifolia
(pohinahina) (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 135). It is likely H.
longiceps also visits several plant species other Hylaeus species are
known to frequently visit, including Heliotropium foertherianum (tree
heliotrope) and Jacquemontia ovalifolia (pauohiiaka) (Magnacca 2005f,
p. 2).
Hylaeus longiceps is historically known from coastal and lowland
dry shrubland habitat up to 2,000 ft (610 m) in numerous locations on
the islands of Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu. Perkins (1899, p. 98)
noted H. longiceps was locally abundant, and probably occurred
throughout much of the leeward and lowland areas on these islands.
Hylaeus longiceps is now restricted to small populations in patches of
coastal and lowland dry habitat on Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu
(Magnacca 2005f, p. 2). Twenty-five sites that were either historical
collecting localities or contained potentially suitable habitat for
this species were surveyed between 1997 and 2008 (Magnacca and King
2013, p. 16). Hylaeus longiceps was observed at only six of the
surveyed sites: three sites on Lanai (in the coastal and lowland dry
ecosystems) and one site on each of the islands of Maui (in the coastal
ecosystem), Molokai (in the coastal ecosystem), and Oahu (in the
coastal ecosystem). Only one of the historical locations surveyed,
Waieu dunes on Maui, still supports a population of H. longiceps (Daly
and Magnacca 2003, p. 135).
Most of the coastal and lowland dry habitat of Hylaeus longiceps
has been developed or degraded, and is no longer suitable (Liebherr and
Polhemus 1997, pp.346-347; Magnacca 2007b, pp. 186-188). Habitat
destruction and modification by axis deer (Lanai) and urbanization
(Maui and Molokai) leads to fragmentation, and eventual loss, of
foraging and nesting areas of H. longiceps (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp.
217-229). Habitat modification and destruction by human impacts in
areas accessible by four-wheel drive vehicles on Lanai is a potential
threat because these vehicles can destroy plants used as food sources
and destroy ground nesting sites for H. longiceps (Daly and Magnacca
2003, p. 135). Habitat destruction and modification by nonnative plants
adversely impacts native Hawaiian plant species used by H. longiceps as
a food source by modifying the availability of light, altering soil-
water regimes, modifying nutrient cycling, altering the fire
characteristics, and ultimately converting native-dominated plant
communities to nonnative plant communities. Nonnative plant species
that modify and destroy habitat of H. longiceps are noted in the
descriptions for H. assimulans and H. facilis, above. Fire is a
potential threat to H. longiceps because it destroys native plant
communities, and opens habitat for increased invasion by nonnative
plants. Because of the greater frequency, intensity, and duration of
fires that have resulted from the human alteration of landscapes and
the introduction of nonnative plants, especially grasses, fires are now
more destructive to native Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000,
p. 172), and a single grass-fueled fire often kills most native trees
and shrubs in the area (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could
destroy food and nesting resources for H. longiceps. The numbers of
wildfires, and the acreages involved, are increasing in the main
Hawaiian Islands; however, their occurrences and locations are
unpredictable, and could affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at any
time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton
2009, in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster
Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally occurring events such as
hurricanes and drought can modify and destroy habitat of H. longiceps
by creating disturbed areas conducive to invasion by nonnative plants
(Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1-2).
Predation, and competition for food sources, by nonnative ants and the
nonnative western yellow jacket wasp is a threat to H. longiceps (see
H. kuakea, above) (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169; Howarth 1985, p. 155;
Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly and
Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Existing regulatory mechanisms
and agency policies do not address the primary threats to the yellow-
faced bees and their habitat from nonnative ungulates. Competition with
nonnative bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, Australian colletid bees)
for nectar and pollen is a potential threat to H. longiceps (Magnacca
2007b, p. 188). The small number of populations and individuals of H.
longiceps makes this species more vulnerable to extinction because of
the higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, random demographic
fluctuations, and localized catastrophes such as hurricanes and drought
(Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007b, p. 173). Changes in
precipitation resulting from the effects of climate change may degrade
habitat for all Hylaeus species; however, we are unable to determine
the extent of these negative impacts at this time. Because of these
threats, we find that Hylaeus longiceps should be listed throughout all
of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its
range.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus mana)
Hylaeus mana is an extremely small, gracile (gracefully slender)
black bee with yellow markings on the face. The smallest of all
Hawaiian Hylaeus species, H. mana is a member of the Dumetorum species
group. The face of the male is mostly yellow below the antennae,
extending dorsally in a narrowing stripe. The female's face has three
yellow lines: one against each eye and a transverse stripe at the apex
of the clypeus. The female's outer markings are the same as the male's
(Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 135). Hylaeus mana

[[Page 58856]]

can be distinguished from H. mimicus and H. specularis (species with
overlapping ranges) by its extremely small size, the shape of the
male's genitalia, the female's extensive facial marks, and a transverse
rather than longitudinal clypeal marking (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p.
138). Hylaeus mana was first described by Daly and Magnacca (2003, pp.
135-136), from four specimens collected in 2002, on the leeward side of
the Koolau Mountains on Oahu, and is the most currently accepted
taxonomy.
The nesting habits of H. mana are not well known, but it is assumed
the species is closely related to other wood-nesting Hawaiian Hylaeus
species, and uses an available cavity (stems of coastal shrubs) for
nest construction (Magnacca 2005g, p. 2; Magnacca and Danforth 2006, p.
403). Adult specimens of H. mana were collected while they visited
flowers of the native plants Psychotria spp. and Santalum
freycinetianum var. freycinetianum (iliahi, sandalwood) (Wagner et al.
1999, p. 1221). It is likely H. mana visits several other native plant
species including Acacia koa, Metrosideros polymorpha, Leptecophylla
tameiameiae, Scaevola spp., and Chamaesyce spp. (Magnacca 2005g, p. 2).
Hylaeus mana is known only from lowland mesic forest dominated by
native Acacia koa located along the Manana Trail in the Koolau
Mountains of Oahu, at 1,400 ft (430 m). Few other Hylaeus species have
been found in this type of forest on Oahu (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p.
138). This type of native forest is increasingly rare and patchily
distributed because of competition and encroachment into habitat by
nonnative plants (Smith 1985, pp. 227-233; Juvik and Juvik 1998, p.
124; Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 66-67, 75). Decline of this forest type
could lead to decline in populations and numbers of H. mana. Three
additional population sites were discovered on Oahu in 2012, including
a new observation of the species at the Manana Trail site (Magnacca and
King 2013, pp. 17-18). The three new sites are within a narrow range of
lowland mesic forest at 1,400 ft (430 m), bordered by nonnative plant
habitat at lower elevations and wetter native forest habitat above
(Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 17-18). Hylaeus mana was most often
observed on Santalum freycinetianum var. freycinetianum, which suggests
that H. mana may be closely associated with this plant species
(Magnacca and King 2013, p. 18). Additional surveys may reveal more
populations; however, the extreme rarity of this species, its absence
from many survey sites, the fact that it was not discovered until very
recently, and the limited range of its possible host plant, all suggest
that few populations remain (Magnacca 2005g, p. 2; Magnacca and King
2013, pp. 17-18).
Habitat destruction and modification by feral pigs leads to
fragmentation, and eventual loss, of foraging and nesting areas of H.
mana (Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 217-229). Habitat destruction and
modification by nonnative plants adversely impacts native Hawaiian
plant species used by H. mana as a food source by modifying the
availability of light, altering soil-water regimes, modifying nutrient
cycling, altering the fire characteristics, and ultimately converting
native dominated plant communities to nonnative plant communities.
Nonnative plant species that modify and destroy habitat of H. mana are
noted in the descriptions for H. assimulans and H. facilis, above, and
can outcompete native canopy species such as A. koa, the known
preferred native canopy type of H. mana (GISD 2011, in litt.; State of
Hawaii 2013, in litt. (S.C.R. No. 74)). Fire is a potential threat to
H. mana, as it destroys native plant communities on which the species
depends, and opens habitat for increased invasion by nonnative plants.
Because of the greater frequency, intensity, and duration of fires that
have resulted from the human alteration of landscapes and the
introduction of nonnative plants, especially grasses, fires are now
more destructive to native Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000,
p. 172), and a single grass-fueled fire often kills most native trees
and shrubs in the area (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74) and could
destroy food and nesting resources for H. assimulans. The numbers of
wildfires, and the acreages involved, are increasing in the main
Hawaiian Islands; however, their occurrences and locations are
unpredictable, and could affect habitat for yellow-faced bees at any
time (Gima 1998, in litt.; County of Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3; Hamilton
2009, in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific Disaster
Center 2011, in litt.). Random, naturally occurring events such as
hurricanes and drought can modify and destroy habitat of H. mana by
creating disturbed areas conducive to invasion by nonnative plants
(Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671; Businger 1998, pp. 1-2).
Predation and competition for food sources by nonnative ants and the
nonnative western yellow jacket wasp are threats to H. mana (see H.
kuakea, above) (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 169; Howarth 1985, p. 155;
Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002, pp. 188, 209; Daly and
Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Existing regulatory mechanisms
and agency policies do not address the primary threats to the yellow-
faced bees and their habitat from nonnative ungulates. Competition with
nonnative bees (honeybees, carpenter bees, Australian colletid bees)
for nectar and pollen is a potential threat to H. mana (Magnacca 2007b,
p. 188). The small number of populations and individuals of H. mana
makes this species more vulnerable to extinction because of the higher
risks from genetic bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, and
localized catastrophes such as fire, hurricanes, and drought (Daly and
Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca 2007b, p. 173). Changes in precipitation
resulting from the effects of climate change may degrade habitat for
all Hylaeus species; however, we are unable to determine the extent of
these negative impacts at this time. Because of these threats, we find
that Hylaeus mana should be listed throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Megalagrion xanthomelas)
The orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Megalagrion xanthomelas; family
Coenagrionidae) is small in size. The adults measure from 1.3 to 1.5 in
(33 to 37 mm) in length and have a wingspan of 1.4 to 1.6 in (35 to 40
mm). Males are bright red in color, females are pale tan in color, and
both sexes exhibit strong patterns including striping. Naiads (the
immature aquatic stage) of this species exhibit flattened, leaf-like
gills (Asquith and Polhemus 1996, p. 91). The orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly was first described by Selys-Longchamps (1876).
Habitat for this species is standing or very slow-moving water. The
naiads are active swimmers and rest on exposed areas of the bottom on
submerged vegetation (Williams 1936, p. 314). They have been observed
breeding in garden pools, large reservoirs, pools of an intermittent
stream, a pond formed behind a cobble bar at the seaward terminus of a
large stream, coastal springs, and freshwater marshes (Polhemus 1996,
pp. 36, 42-45; Williams 1936, pp. 239, 310). In 1913, Perkins (p.
clxxviii) described it as a common insect in Honolulu gardens and in
lowland districts generally, not usually partial to the mountains,
though in the Kona district of Hawaii Island it was common in stagnant
pools up to elevations of about 3,000 ft (900 m).

[[Page 58857]]

The orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly was once Hawaii's most abundant
damselfly species because it utilizes a variety of aquatic habitats for
breeding sites. Historically, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly
probably occurred on all of the main Hawaiian Islands (except
Kahoolawe) in suitable aquatic habitat within the coastal, lowland dry,
and lowland mesic ecosystems (Perkins 1913, p. clxxviii; Zimmerman
1948a, p. 379; Polhemus 1996, p. 30). Its historical range on Kauai is
unknown. On Oahu, it was recorded from Honolulu, Kaimuki, Koko Head,
Pearl City, Waialua, the Waianae Mountains, and Waianae (Polhemus 1996,
pp. 31, 33). On Molokai, it was known from Kainalu, Meyer's Lake
(Kalaupapa Peninsula), Kaunakakai, Mapulehu, and Palaau (Polhemus 1996,
pp. 33-41). On Lanai, small populations occurred on Maunalei Gulch, and
in ephemeral coastal ponds at the mouth of Maunalei Gulch drainage, at
Keomuku, and in a mixohaline habitat at Lopa (Polhemus 1996, pp. 37-41;
HBMP 2010). On Maui, this species was recorded from an unspecified
locality in the west Maui Mountains (Polhemus 1996, pp. 41-42; Polhemus
et al. 1999, pp. 27-29). On Hawaii Island, it was known from Hilo,
Kona, Naalehu, and Panaewa Forest Reserve (FR) (Polhemus 1996, pp. 42-
47).
Currently, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly occurs on five
islands. In 1994, on Oahu, a very small population was discovered in
pools of an intermittent stream at the Tripler Army Medical Facility
(Englund 2001, p. 256). On Molokai, populations occur at the mouths of
Pelekunu and Waikolu streams, and at the Palaau wetlands on the south
coast (Polhemus 1996, p. 47). On Lanai, a large population occurs in an
artificial pond at Koele (Polhemus 1996, p. 47). The species is present
on Maui at Ukumehame stream (west Maui) and near anchialine pools at La
Perouse Bay (leeward east Maui) (Polhemus et al. 1999, p. 29). Several
large populations exist in coastal wetlands on Hawaii Island at the
following locations: Anaehoomalu Bay, Kawa Bay, Hilea Stream, Hilo,
Honokohau, Kiholo Bay, Ninole Springs, Onomea Bay, Whittington Beach,
Keaukaha, Kapoho, Honaunau, and Pohue Bay (Polhemus 1996, pp. 42-47).
The species is believed to be extirpated from Kauai (Asquith and
Polhemus 1996, p. 91).
Past and present land use and water management practices, including
agriculture, urban development, ground water development, feral
ungulates, and destruction of perched aquifer and surface water
resources, modify and destroy habitat of the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly (Harris et al. 1993, pp. 9-13; Meier et al. 1993, pp. 181-
183). Nonnative plant species such as Brachiaria mutica (California
grass) form dense, monotypic stands that can completely eliminate any
open water habitat of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and nonnative
grasses provide fuel for wildfires (Smith 1985, p. 186). Other
stochastic events such as flooding and hurricanes can also modify and
destroy habitat, and kill individuals. Predation by nonnative fish and
nonnative aquatic invertebrates on the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly
is a significant threat. Hawaiian damselflies evolved with few, if any,
predatory fish and the exposed behavior of most of the fully aquatic
damselfly species, including the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, makes
them particularly vulnerable to predation by nonnative fish (Englund
1999, pp. 225-225, 235). The damselfly is not observed in any bodies of
water that support nonnative fish (Henrickson 1988, p. 183; McPeek
1990a, pp. 92-96). Nonnative backswimmers (aquatic true bugs;
Heteroptera) are voracious predators and frequently feed on prey much
larger than themselves, such as tadpoles, small fish, and other aquatic
invertebrates including damselfly naiads (Borror et al. 1989, p. 296).
Several species of backswimmers have become established in Hawaii, and
their presence in aquatic habitat can cause orangeblack Hawaiian
damselflies to reduce foraging, thereby reducing its growth,
development, and survival (Heads 1986, pp. 374-375). Hawaii State law
(State Water Code) does not provide for permanent or minimal instream
flow standards, and stream channels can be undertaken at any time by
the Water Commission or via public petitions to revise flow standards
or modify stream channels, possibly resulting in modification and
destruction of the aquatic habitat of the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly (Hawaii Administrative Rule (HAR)-State Water Code, title 13,
chapter 169-36). In addition, competition with nonnative invertebrates
for space and resources by a nonnative insect group, the Trichoptera
(caddisflies), is a potential threat to the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly (Flint et al. 2003, p. 38).
The remaining populations and habitat of the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly are at risk; numbers are decreasing on Oahu, Molokai, Lanai,
Maui, and Hawaii Island, and both the species and its habitat continue
to be negatively affected by modification and destruction by
development and water management practices and by nonnative plants,
combined with predation by nonnative fish and nonnative invertebrates.
Competition with nonnative insects is a potential threat to the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. Because of these threats, we find that
this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and,
therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.
Anchialine Pool Shrimp (Procaris hawaiana)
The anchialine pool shrimp Procaris hawaiana (family Procarididae)
ranges in total length from 0.4 to 1.2 in (10 to 30 mm). This species
has a pink to light-red pigmentation that is darkest along the midline
with the dorsal thorax white to yellow. Black pigments are associated
with the eyes. Conspicuous chelapeds (claws) are lacking. Locomotion is
accomplished by swimming with the swimmerets (modified appendages) and
occurs just above the substrate to mid-water (Holthius 1973, pp. 12-
19). Procaris hawaiana was described by Holthius in 1973, and is
recognized as a valid taxon in McLaughlin et al. (2005, p. 212), the
most recently accepted taxonomy.
Procaris hawaiana is known to occur in mid-salinity (19 to 25 parts
per thousand (ppt)) anchialine pools. Except for some records of native
eels, anchialine pools in Hawaii do not typically support native fish
species; however, nonnative fish have been introduced to pools, and
they prey on native invertebrates such as P. hawaiana (Bailey-Brock and
Brock 1993, p. 354; Brock 2004, p. i). Little is known of the
reproductive biology or the diet of P. hawaiana, although it has been
documented to scavenge other species of anchialine shrimp and has taken
frozen brine shrimp when in captivity (Holthius 1973, pp. 12-19).
Although anchialine pools are widespread, being found in areas such
as Saudi Arabia, Madagascar, Fiji, and other Indo-Pacific islands, the
total area they occupy globally is extremely small (Maciolek 1983, pp.
607-612). While many species of anchialine pool shrimp have disjunct,
global distributions, most geographic locations contain some endemic
taxa (i.e., taxa found nowhere else on Earth) (Maciolek 1983, pp. 607-
612). The shrimp family Procarididae is represented by a small number
of species globally, with only two species within the genus Procaris
(Holthius 1973, pp. 12-19). Procaris hawaiana is an endemic species
known only from the islands of Maui and Hawaii. The second species, P.
ascensionis, is restricted to similar habitat on

[[Page 58858]]

Ascension Island in the South Atlantic Ocean. Of the anchialine pools
on Hawaii Island, only 25 are known to contain Procaris hawaiana.
During nocturnal-diurnal surveys conducted from 2009 to 2010, 19 pools
within the Manuka Natural Area Reserve (NAR) were found to contain P.
hawaiana. Five additional pools located on unencumbered State land
adjacent to Manuka NAR also contained P. hawaiana (from the total 24
recorded pools within the Manuka watershed). A single pool located at
Lua o Palahemo also contains P. hawaiana, along with the endangered
anchialine pool shrimp Vetericaris chaceorum (Holthius 1973, pp. 12-19;
Maciolek 1983, pp. 607-614; Brock 204, pp. 30-57). On Maui, P. hawaiana
occurs in two anchialine pools at Ahihi-Kinau NAR (Holthius 1973, pp.
12-19; Maciolek 1983, pp. 607-614; Brock 2004, pp. 30-57).
Like other anchialine pool shrimp species, P. hawaiana inhabits
extensive networks of water-filled interstitial spaces (cracks and
crevices) leading to and from the actual pool, a trait which has
precluded researchers from ascertaining accurate population size
estimates (Holthius 1973, p. 36; Maciolek 1983, pp. 613-616). Often,
surveys for many rare species of anchialine pool shrimp, including P.
hawaiana, involve a presence-absence survey approach in their
respective habitat (often with the aid of baiting). Absence, and
presumably extirpation, of shrimp species from suitable habitat is
likely the best or only measure of species decline as population sizes
are not easily determined (Holthius 1973, pp. 7-12; Maciolek 1983, pp.
613-616). Disappearance of the anchialine pool shrimp Halocaridina
rubra from an anchialine pool at Honokohau Harbor (Hawaii Island) has
been documented, as a result of the use of the pool for dumping of used
oil, grease, and oil filters (Brock 2004, p. 14); however, to date,
there is no documentation of extirpation of Procaris hawaiana from the
pools that it is known to occupy (Wada 2015, in litt.).
Habitat modification and destruction by human activities is a
threat to Procaris hawaiana. It is estimated that up to 90 percent of
existing anchialine pools have been destroyed by filling and bulldozing
(Baily-Brock and Brock 1993, p. 354; Brock 2004, p. i). Anchialine
pools are used as dumping pits for bottles, cans, and used oil and
grease, and these activities are a known cause of the disappearance of
another anchialine pool shrimp, Halocaridina rubra, from a pool
adjacent to Honokohau Harbor on the island of Hawaii (Brock 2004, p.
16). Trampling damage from use of anchialine pools for swimming and
bathing has been documented (Brock 2004, pp. 13-17). Although a permit
from the State is required to collect anchialine pool shrimp,
unpermitted collection of shrimp for trade for the aquarium hobby
market is ongoing (Fuku-Bonsai 2015, in litt.). Collection is not
prohibited at State Parks or City and County property where some
anchialine pools occur. Predation by nonnative fish is a direct threat
to P. hawaiana. Nonnative fish (tilapia, Oreochromis mossambica) also
outcompete native herbivorous species of shrimp that serve as a prey-
base for P. hawaiana, disrupting the delicate ecological balance in the
anchialine pool system, and leading to decline of the pools and the
shrimp inhabiting them (Brock 2004, pp. 13-17). Although anchialine
pools within State NARs are provided some protection, these areas are
remote and signage does not prevent human use and damage of the pools.
The persistence of existing populations of P. hawaiana is hampered by
the small number of extant populations and the small geographic range
of the known populations. The small populations of P. hawaiana are at
risk of extinction because of their increased vulnerability to loss of
individuals from chance occurrences, habitat destruction, and the
effects of invasive species; to demographic stochasticity; and to the
reduction in genetic variability that may make the species less able to
adapt to changes in the environment (Harmon and Braude 2010, pp. 125-
128). In addition, large-scale water extraction from underground water
sources may negatively impact the habitat and P. hawaiana directly
(Conry 2012, in litt.).
The remaining populations of Procaris hawaiana and its habitat are
at risk. The known individuals are restricted to a small area number of
anchialine pools on Maui and Hawaii Island and continue to be
negatively affected by habitat destruction and modification by human
use of the pools for bathing and for dumping of trash and nonnative
fish; by water extraction; by predation by and competition with
nonnative fish; and by collection for the aquarium trade. The small
number of remaining populations may limit this species' ability to
adapt to environmental changes. Because of these threats, we find that
this species should be listed as endangered throughout all of its
range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze
whether it is threatened or endangered or threatened in a significant
portion of its range.

Distinct Population Segment

Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel (Oceanodroma castro)

Under the Act, we have the authority to consider for listing any
species, subspecies, or, for vertebrates, any distinct population
segment (DPS) of these taxa if there is sufficient information to
indicate that such action may be warranted. To guide the implementation
of the DPS provisions of the Act, we and the National Marine Fisheries
Service (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration--Fisheries)
published the Policy Regarding the Recognition of Distinct Vertebrate
Population Segments Under the Endangered Species Act (DPS Policy) in
the Federal Register on February 7, 1996 (61 FR 4722) to guide the
implementation of the DPS provisions of the Act. Under our DPS Policy,
we use two elements to assess whether a population segment under
consideration for listing may be recognized as a DPS: (1) The
population segment's discreteness from the remainder of the species to
which it belongs, and (2) the significance of the population segment to
the species to which it belongs. If we determine that a population
segment being considered for listing is a DPS, then the population
segment's conservation status is evaluated based on the five listing
factors established by the Act to determine if listing it as either
endangered or threatened is warranted. Below, we evaluate the Hawaii
population of the band-rumped storm-petrel to determine whether it
meets the definition of a DPS under our DPS Policy.

Discreteness

Under the DPS Policy, a population segment of a vertebrate taxon
may be considered discrete if it satisfies either one of the following
conditions: (1) It is markedly separated from other populations of the
same taxon as a consequence of physical, physiological, ecological, or
behavioral factors (quantitative measures of genetic or morphological
discontinuity may provide evidence of this separation); or (2) it is
delimited by international governmental boundaries within which
differences in control of exploitation, management of habitat,
conservation status, or regulatory mechanisms exist that are
significant in light of section 4(a)(1)(D) of the Act. The Hawaii
population of the band-rumped storm-petrel meets the first criterion:
it is markedly separated from other populations of this species by
physical

[[Page 58859]]

(geographic) and physiological (genetic) factors, as described below.
The band-rumped storm-petrel is widely distributed in the tropics
and subtropics, with breeding populations in numerous island groups in
the Atlantic and in Hawaii, Galapagos, and Japan in the Pacific
(Harrison 1983, p. 274; Carboneras et al. 2014, p. 1; Fig. 1). The
geographic, and in some cases seasonal, separation of these breeding
populations is widely recognized, with strong genetic differentiation
between the two ocean basins and among individual populations (Friesen
et al. 2007b, p. 1768; Smith et al. 2007, p. 768). Whether individual
populations merit taxonomic separation remains unclear, and further
study is needed (Friesen et al. 2007a, p. 18591; Smith et al. 2007, p.
770; reviewed in Howell 2011, pp. 349, 369-370); some populations, such
as those in the Galapagos and Cape Verde islands, may warrant full
species status (Smith et al. 2007, p. 770). Like other storm-petrels,
the band-rumped storm-petrel is a highly pelagic (open-ocean) seabird
(Howell 2011, p. 349). In addition, like other species in the seabird
order Procellariiformes, band-rumped storm-petrels exhibit strong
philopatry, or fidelity to their natal sites (Allan 1962, p. 274;
Harris 1969, pp. 96, 113, 120; Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; Smith et
al. 2007, pp. 768-769). Both of these characteristics contribute to
isolation of breeding populations, in spite of the absence of physical
barriers such as land masses within ocean basins (Friesen et al. 2007b,
pp. 1777-1778).
Band-rumped storm-petrels from Hawaii are likely to encounter
individuals from other populations only very rarely. The approximate
distances from Hawaii to other known breeding sites are much greater
than the birds' average foraging range of 860 mi (1,200 km): 4,000mi
(6,600 km) to Japan and 4,600 mi (7,400 km) to Galapagos (the two other
Pacific populations), and 7,900 mi (12,700 km) to Madeira, 7,300 mi
(11,700 km) to the Azores, and 9,700 mi (15,600 km) to Ascension Island
(in the Atlantic). Data from at-sea surveys of the eastern tropical
Pacific conducted since 1988 show that the density of band-rumped
storm-petrels attenuates north and northwest of Galapagos and that the
species rarely occurs in a broad area southeast of Hawaii (Pitman,
Ballance, and Joyce 2015, unpublished). This pattern suggests a gap in
the at-sea distribution of this species, and low likelihood of
immigration on an ecological timescale, between Hawaii and Galapagos.
We are not aware of any data describing the at-sea distribution of this
species between Hawaii and Japan, but the absence of breeding records
from western Micronesia (Pyle and Engbring 1985, p. 59) suggests there
is a distributional gap between these two archipelagoes as well. Other
than occasional encounters in their foraging habitat, the vast expanses
of ocean between Japan, Hawaii, and Galapagos provide for no other
sources of potential connectivity between band-rumped storm-petrel
populations in the Pacific, such as additional breeding sites.
Even those disparate breeding populations of pelagic seabirds that
do overlap at sea may remain largely isolated otherwise and exhibit
genetic differentiation (e.g., Walsh and Edwards 2005, pp. 290, 293).
Despite the birds' capacity to move across large areas of ocean,
genetic differentiation among breeding populations of band-rumped
storm-petrels is high (Friesen et al. 2007a, p. 18590; Smith et al.
2007, p. 768), even between populations nesting in different seasons on
the same island (in Galapagos; Smith and Friesen 2007, p. 1599). No
haplotypes are shared (1) Between Atlantic and Pacific populations; (2)
among Japan, Hawaii, and Galapagos populations; or (3) between Cape
Verde, Ascension, and northeast Atlantic breeding populations (Smith et
al. 2007, p. 768). Hawaiian birds have not been well-sampled for
genetic analysis, but the few individuals from Hawaii included in a
rangewide analysis showed differentiation from all other populations,
and were most closely related to birds from Japan (Friesen et al. 2007,
p. 18590).
We have determined that the Hawaii population of the band-rumped
storm-petrel is discrete from the rest of the taxon because its
breeding and foraging range are markedly separated from those of other
populations. The Hawaii population is geographically isolated from
populations in Japan and Galapagos, as well as from populations in very
distant island groups in the central and western Atlantic Ocean.
Molecular evidence indicates that the genetic structure of the species
reflects the spatial or temporal separation of individual populations;
the scant molecular data from Hawaii suggest that this holds for the
Hawaii population as well.

Significance

Under our DPS Policy, once we have determined that a population
segment is discrete, we consider its biological and ecological
significance to the larger taxon to which it belongs. This
consideration may include, but is not limited to: (1) Evidence of the
persistence of the discrete population segment in an ecological setting
that is unusual or unique for the taxon, (2) evidence that loss of the
population segment would result in a significant gap in the range of
the taxon, (3) evidence that the population segment represents the only
surviving natural occurrence of a taxon that may be more abundant
elsewhere as an introduced population outside its historical range, or
(4) evidence that the discrete population segment differs markedly from
other populations of the species in its genetic characteristics. We
have found substantial evidence that the Hawaii population of the band-
rumped storm-petrel meets two of the significance criteria listed
above: the loss of this population would result in a significant gap in
the range of the taxon, and this population persists in a unique
ecological setting. As described above, the physical isolation that
defines the discreteness of Hawaii population is likely reflected in
genetic differentiation from other populations, but at this time we
lack sufficient data to consider genetic characteristics per se in our
determination of the Hawaii population's significance to the rest of
the taxon. Genetic patterns on an ocean-basin or species-wide scale,
however, have implications for connectivity and potential gaps in the
band-rumped storm-petrel's range (described below).
Dispersal between populations of seabird species with ranges
fragmented by large expanses of ocean may play a vital role in the
persistence of individual populations (Bicknell et al. 2012, p. 2872).
No evidence currently exists of such dispersal among Pacific
populations of band-rumped storm-petrels at frequencies or in numbers
that would change the population status between years, for example, by
providing immigrants that compensate for breeding failure or adult
mortality resulting from predation, as has been hypothesized for
Leach's storm-petrel in the Atlantic (Bicknell et al. 2012, p. 2872).
Given the remnant population of band-rumped storm-petrels in Hawaii and
recently documented decline in Japan (Biodiversity Center of Japan
2014, p. 1), we would not expect to see exchange on such short
timescales. However, genetic evidence is suggestive of exchange between
these two populations on an evolutionary timescale (Friesen et al.
2007a, p. 18590).
The loss of this population would result in a significant gap in
the range of the band-rumped storm-petrel. As noted above, seabirds in
the order Procellariiformes, including the band-rumped storm-petrel,
exhibit very high natal site fidelity, and so are slow to recolonize
extirpated areas or range-

[[Page 58860]]

gaps (Jones 2010, p. 1214), and may lack local adaptations; they thus
face a potentially increased risk of extinction with the loss of
individual populations (Smith et al. 2007, p. 770). The Hawaii
population of the band-rumped storm petrel constitutes the entire
Central Pacific distribution of the species, located roughly half-way
between the populations in Galapagos and Japan (Fig. 1), and its loss
would create a gap of approximately 8,500 mi. (13,680 km) between them
and significantly reducing the likelihood of connectivity and genetic
exchange. Such exchange would be reliant on chance occurrences, such as
severe storms that could result in birds being displaced to the
opposite side of the Pacific Ocean basin, and such chance dispersal
events would not necessarily result in breeding.
The Hawaii population of the band-rumped storm-petrel is
significant also because it persists in a unique ecological setting.
This is the only population of the species known to nest at high-
elevation sites (above 6,000 ft (1,800 m; Banko et al. 1991, pp. 651-
653; Athens et al. 1991, p. 95)). In prehistory, the species likely
nested in lowland habitats and more accessible habitats in Hawaii as
well as in the high-elevation and otherwise remote areas where the
species is found today; archaeological evidence suggests that band-
rumped storm-petrels were once sufficiently common at both high (5,260
and 6,550 ft (1,600 and 2,000 m)) and low elevations on Hawaii Island
to be used as a food source by humans (Ziegler pers. comm. in Harrison
et al. 1990, pp. 47-48; Athens et al. 1991, pp. 65, 78-80; Banko et al.
1991, p. 650). In lowland areas, the species was common enough for the
Hawaiians to name it and to identify it by its call (Harrison et al.
1990, p. 47; Banko et al. 1991, p. 650). In addition to the impacts of
harvest by humans in prehistory, seabirds in Hawaii, including the
band-rumped storm-petrel, were negatively affected by the proliferation
of nonnative predators such as rats and pigs, and, later, cats and
mongoose, and by loss of habitat (reviewed in Duffy 2010, pp. 194-196).
Predation and habitat loss combined likely led to the extirpation of
the band-rumped storm-petrel from coastal and lowland habitats and
other accessible nesting areas, as occurred in the endangered Hawaiian
petrel (Pterodroma sandwichensis) and threatened Newell's shearwater,
which have similar nesting habits and life histories (Olson and James
1982, p. 43; Slotterback 2002, p. 6; Troy et al. 2014, pp. 315, 325-
326). The band-rumped storm-petrel's persistence in sites such as the
Southwest Rift Zone (6,900 ft (2,100 m)) on Mauna Loa (Hawaii Island)
has required them to surmount physiological challenges posed by nesting
in high-elevation conditions (cold temperatures, low humidity, and less
oxygen). They may possess special adaptations for this, such as
reduction in porosity and other eggshell modifications to reduce the
loss of water and carbon dioxide during incubation at high elevation
(Rahn et al. 1977, p. 3097; Carey et al. 1982a, p. 716; Carey et al.
1982b, p. 349). In sum, the remnant distribution of band-rumped storm-
petrel breeding sites in only the most remote and rugged terrain in
Hawaii reflects conditions necessary for the species' persistence:
relatively undisturbed habitat in areas least accessible to predators;
in addition, adaptations unique in this species may be necessary for
its persistence in high-elevation areas.
We have determined that the Hawaii population of band-rumped storm-
petrel is significant to the rest of the taxon. Its loss would result
in a gap in the range of the species of more than 8,500 mi (13,680 km),
reducing and potentially precluding connectivity between the two
remaining populations in the Pacific Basin. In addition, the Hawaii
population nests at high elevation on some islands, constituting a
unique ecological setting represented nowhere else in the species'
breeding range.

DPS Conclusion

We have evaluated the Hawaii population of band-rumped storm-petrel
to determine if it meets the definition of a DPS, considering its
discreteness and significance as required by our policy. We have found
that this population is markedly separated from other populations by
geographic distance, and this separation is likely reflected in the
population's genetic distinctiveness. The Hawaii population is
significant to the rest of the species because its loss would result in
a significant gap in the species' range; Hawaii is located roughly
half-way between the other two populations in the Pacific Ocean, and
little or no evidence exists of current overlap at sea between the
Hawaii population and either the Japan or Galapagos populations. The
Hawaii population of band-rumped storm-petrel also nests at high
elevation in Hawaii--conditions at high elevation constitute an
ecological setting unique to the species. We conclude that the Hawaii
population of band-rumped storm-petrel is a distinct vertebrate
population segment under our 1996 DPS Policy (61 FR 4722), and that it
warrants review for listing under the Act. Therefore, we have
incorporated the Hawaii DPS of the band-rumped storm-petrel in our
evaluation of threats stressors affecting the other 48 species
addressed in this proposed rule (summarized above; see also ``Summary
of Factors Affecting the 49 Species Proposed for Listing,'' below).
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P

[[Page 58861]]

[GRAPHIC] [TIFF OMITTED] TP30SE15.001

BILLING CODE 4310-55-C

Summary of Factors Affecting the 49 Species Proposed for Listing

Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), and its implementing
regulations at 50 CFR part 424, set forth the procedures for adding
species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and
Plants. A species may be determined to be an endangered or threatened
species due to one or more of the five factors described in section
4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B)
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade
factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be
warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in
combination. Each of these factors is discussed below.
In considering what factors might constitute threats to a species,
we must look beyond the mere exposure of the species to the factor to
evaluate whether the species responds to the factor in a way that
causes actual impacts to the species. If there is exposure to a factor
and the species responds negatively, the factor may be a threat, and,
during the status review, we attempt to determine how significant a
threat it is. The threat is significant if it drives, or contributes
to, the risk of extinction of the species such that the species
warrants listing as an endangered or threatened species as those terms
are defined by the Act. However, the identification of factors that
could impact a species negatively may not be sufficient to warrant
listing the species under the Act. The information must include
evidence sufficient to show that these factors are operative threats
that act on the species to the point that the species meets the
definition of an endangered or threatened species under the Act. That
evidence is discussed below for each of the species proposed for
listing in this rule.
If we determine that the level of threat posed to a species by one
or more of the five listing factors is such that the species meets the
definition of either endangered or threatened under section 3 of the
Act, that species may then be proposed for listing. The Act defines an
endangered species as ``in danger of extinction throughout all or a
significant portion of its range,'' and a threatened species as
``likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future
throughout all or a significant portion of its range.'' The threats to
each of the individual 49 species proposed for listing in this

[[Page 58862]]

document are summarized in Table 3, and discussed in detail, below.
Each of the species proposed for listing in this proposed rule is
adversely affected by the threats to the ecosystems on which it
depends. There is information available on many of the threats that act
on Hawaiian ecosystems, and for some ecosystems, there is a growing
body of literature regarding these threats (e.g., nonnative ungulates
and invasive plant species). The best available information on
ecosystem threats affecting the species therein is discussed below.
Table 3 identifies the threats to the ecosystems and the individual
species within those ecosystems that are affected by those threats.
Information on threats specific to certain species is also discussed
where necessary and available; however, we acknowledge that we do not
completely understand all the threats to each species. Scientific
research directed toward each of these species is limited because of
their rarity and the generally challenging logistics associated with
conducting field work in Hawaii (e.g., areas are typically remote,
difficult to survey in a comprehensive manner, and the target species
are exceptionally uncommon).
The following threats affect the species proposed for listing in
one or more of the ecosystems addressed in this proposed rule:
(1) Foraging and trampling of native plants by nonnative ungulates,
including feral pigs, goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, mouflon,
sheep, and cattle, which can result in severe erosion of watersheds.
Foraging and trampling events destabilize soils that support native
plant communities, bury or damage native plants, have adverse water
quality effects due to runoff over exposed soils, and can negatively
affect burrows and nesting areas used by the band-rumped storm-petrel.
(2) Disturbance of soils by feral pigs from rooting, which can
create fertile seedbeds for nonnative plants.
(3) Increased nutrient availability and changes to nutrient cycling
processes as a result of rooting by pigs in nitrogen-poor soils, which
facilitates establishment of nonnative plants, as they are more adapted
to nutrient-rich soils than native plants, and rooting activity creates
open areas in forests allowing nonnative plants to completely replace
native stands.
(4) Ungulate destruction of seeds and seedling of native plants,
and facilitation of distribution of seeds of nonnative plants,
promoting conversion of disturbed areas from native to nonnative
vegetative communities.
(5) Damage by rat herbivory to plant propagules, seedlings, or
native trees, which changes forest composition and structure.
(6) Feeding on or defoliation of native plants by nonnative
invertebrates (e.g., slugs), which can reduce the geographic ranges of
eight plant species (Cyanea kauaulaensis, Deparia kaalaana, Labordia
lorenciana, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. stachyoides, Ranunculus
mauiensis, Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, and S. pubescens) because of
damage or removal.
(7) Competition for food and nesting sites of the Hylaeus yellow-
faced bees by nonnative wasps and bees.
(8) Predation by nonnative vertebrates such as fish, rats, cats,
mongoose, and barn owls.
(9) Predation by nonnative invertebrates such as ants, wasps, and
backswimmers.
(10) Water extraction leading to conversion of wetlands and surface
fresh water resources, and changes to anchialine pools.
(11) Habitat modification and destruction by ungulates and fires,
resulting in loss of forage plants used by Hylaeus for nectar and
pollen.
(12) Injury and mortality of the band-rumped storm-petrel caused by
artificial lighting, communication towers, and power lines.
Each of the above threats is discussed in more detail below, and
summarized in Table 3.

[[Page 58863]]

Table 3--Primary and Potential Future Threats Identified for Each of the 49 Hawaiian Islands Species
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Factor A Factor B Factor C Factor D Factor E
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Predation/ Inadequate Other
Species Ecosystem Agriculture and Non- native Stochastic Over- Predation/ herbivory by Predation/ existing species- Climate
urban Ungulates plants Fire events utilization herbivory by other NN herbivory by NN regulatory specific change
development ungulates vertebrates invertebrates mechanisms threats
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PLANTS:
Asplenium diellaciniatum... MM................. ............... P, G, BTD... X........... ............ ............... .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft.
Calamagrostis expansa...... MW................. ............... P........... X........... ............ ............... .............. X............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Cyanea kauaulaensis........ LW................. ............... ............ X........... ............ L, F........... .............. .............. R............. S.............. X............ LN, NR.... Ft.
Cyclosorus boydiae......... LW, MW............. WE............. P........... X........... ............ L, F........... .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Cyperus neokunthianus...... LW................. ............... P........... X........... ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft.
Cyrtandra hematos.......... MW................. ............... P, G........ X........... ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. ............... X............ LN, NR.... Ft \FV\.
Deparia kaalaana........... LM, LW............. ............... P........... X........... ............ F, DR.......... .............. .............. .............. S.............. X............ LN........ Ft.
Dryopteris glabra var. MW................. ............... P........... X........... ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
pusilla.
Exocarpos menziesii........ LM, MM, MD......... ............... G, M, SH.... ............ X........... ............... .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Festuca hawaiiensis........ MD................. ............... G, M, SH.... X........... X........... F.............. .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Gardenia remyi............. LM, LW............. ............... P, G, D..... X........... ............ L.............. .............. X............. R............. ............... X............ LN, NR.... Ft \FV\.
Huperzia stemmermanniae.... MW................. ............... P, G, D, C.. ............ ............ DR............. .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. MW................. ............... ............ X........... ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
mauiensis.
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. LW, LM, MW, MM..... ............... P, G, D..... ............ X........... L.............. .............. X............. R............. ............... X............ LN, NR.... Ft \FV\.
ascendens.
Kadua fluviatilis.......... LM, LW............. ............... P, G........ X........... ............ L.............. .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Kadua haupuensis........... LM................. ............... P........... X........... ............ L.............. .............. .............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft.
Labordia lorenciana........ MM................. ............... P, G........ X........... X........... L, F, TF....... .............. X............. R............. S.............. X............ LN, NR.... Ft.
Lepidium orbiculare........ LM................. ............... P........... X........... ............ L.............. .............. .............. .............. ............... X............ LN, NR.... Ft.
Microlepia strigosa var. LM, MW, MM......... ............... P, G........ X........... ............ ............... .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN, HY.... Ft \FV\.
mauiensis.
Myrsine fosbergii.......... LM, LW, MW......... ............... P, G........ X........... ............ ............... .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Nothocestrum latifolium.... LD, LM, DC......... X.............. P, G, D, X........... X........... ............... .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN, NR.... Ft \FV\.
BTD, M, SH.
Ochrosia haleakalae........ LM, LW, MM, DC..... ............... P, G, C..... X........... X........... L.............. .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Phyllostegia brevidens..... LW, MW, WC......... ............... P, M, SH, C. X........... ............ L.............. .............. X............. .............. S.............. X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Phyllostegia helleri....... LW, MW, WC......... ............... P, G........ X........... ............ L.............. .............. .............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Phyllostegia stachyoides... MW, MM............. ............... P, G, D..... X........... X........... L, RF, F, DR... .............. X............. R............. S.............. X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Portulaca villosa.......... CO, LD, MD......... X.............. G, D, M, SH, X........... X........... L, RF.......... .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
C.
Pritchardia bakeri......... LM................. ............... P........... X........... ............ HUR............ .............. .............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft.
Pseudognaphalium CO................. X.............. G, D........ X........... ............ L, RF.......... .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
sandwicensium var.
molokaiense.
Ranunculus hawaiensis...... MM, MD, SA......... ............... P, M, C..... X........... ............ DR, E.......... .............. X............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Ranunculus mauiensis....... MW, MM, MD, WC..... ............... P, G, D, X........... X........... L, DR, E....... .............. X............. R............. S.............. X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
BTD, C.
Sanicula sandwicensis...... MM, MD, SA......... ............... G........... X........... X........... F, DR, E....... .............. X............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Santalum involutum......... LM, LW............. ............... P, G, BTD... X........... X........... ............... .............. X............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft.
Schiedea diffusa ssp. LW, MW............. ............... P........... X........... ............ ............... .............. .............. R............. S.............. X............ LN........ Ft.
diffusa.
Schiedea pubescens......... LW, MW, MM, WC..... ............... P, G, D, C.. X........... X........... F, DR, E....... .............. X............. R............. S.............. X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Sicyos lanceoloideus....... LM, MM, DC......... ............... P, G........ X........... X........... DR............. .............. X............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Sicyos macrophyllus........ MW, MM, MD......... ............... P, M, C..... X........... X........... ............... .............. X............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Solanum nelsonii........... CO................. X.............. D, C........ X........... X........... F, DR, E....... .............. X............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
Stenogyne kaalae ssp. LW................. ............... P........... X........... ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft \FV\.
sherffii.
Wikstroemia skottsbergiana. LW................. ............... P........... X........... ............ ............... .............. .............. R............. ............... X............ LN........ Ft.
ANIMALS: ................... ............... ............ ............ ............ ............... .............. .............. .............. ............... ............. .......... Ft.
Band-rumped storm-petrel CO, DC, WC......... ............... G, M........ ............ ............ L, E, HUR...... .............. .............. R, O, CA, MO.. ............... X............ LI, ST, H, Ft.
(Oceanodroma castro). LN.
Orangeblack Hawaiian AP, CO, LD, LM..... X, WE.......... P, G, D..... X........... X........... F, DR, HUR..... .............. .............. FS............ BS............. X............ LN........ Ft.
damselfly Megalagrion
xanthomelas.
Anchialine pool shrimp AP................. X, WE.......... ............ ............ ............ ............... X............. .............. FS............ ............... X............ LN, RU, SD Ft.
(Procaris hawaiana).
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus CO, LD............. X.............. P, G, C, M, X........... X........... DR, HUR........ .............. .............. .............. A, W........... X............ LN, W, B, Ft.
anthracinus). S, D. LHP.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus CO, LD............. X.............. P, G, C, M, X........... X........... DR, HUR........ .............. .............. .............. A, W........... X............ LN, W, B, Ft.
assimulans). D. LHP.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus CO, LD, LM......... X.............. P, G, C, M, X........... X........... DR, HUR........ .............. .............. .............. A, W........... X............ LN, W, B, Ft.
facilis). D. LHP.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus CO, LD............. X.............. P, G, C, M, X........... X........... DR, HUR........ .............. .............. .............. A, W........... X............ LN, W, B, Ft.
hilaris). D. LHP.

[[Page 58864]]

Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus LM................. ............... P, G........ X........... X........... DR, HUR........ .............. .............. .............. A, W........... X............ LN, W, B, Ft.
kuakea). LHP.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus CO, LD............. X.............. M, D........ X........... X........... DR, HUR........ .............. .............. .............. A, W........... X............ LN, W, B, Ft.
longiceps). LHP.
Yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus LM................. ............... P........... X........... X........... DR, HUR........ .............. .............. .............. A, W........... X............ LN, W, B, Ft.
mana). LHP.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Factor A = Habitat Modification; Factor B = Overutilization; Factor C = Disease or Predation; Factor D = Inadequacy of Regulatory Mechanisms; Factor E = Other Species-Specific Threats; AP = Anchialine Pools; CO = Coastal; LD =
Lowland Dry; LM = Lowland Mesic; LW = Lowland Wet; MW = Montane Wet; MM = Montane Mesic; MD = Montane Dry; SA = Subalpine; DC = Dry Cliff; WC = Wet Cliff.
A = Ants; B = Bees (competition); BS = Backswimmer; BTD = Black Tailed Deer; C = Cattle; CA = Cats; D = Axis Deer; FS = Fish; G = Goats; M = Mouflon; MO = Mongoose; O = Barn Owls; P = Pigs; R = Rats; S = Slugs; SH = Sheep; TF = Tree
Fall; W = Wasps (competiton, predation).
DR = Drought; E = Erosion; F = Flooding; H = Human (fisheries, marine debris); HUR = Hurricanes; HY = Hybridization; L = Landslides; LHP = Loss of Host Plants; LI = Lights; LN = Low Numbers; NR = No Regeneration; RF = Rockfalls; RU
= Recreational Use (swimming, fishing, dumping trash and nonnative fish); SD = Sedimentation; ST = Structures; WE = Water Extraction; FV = Fortini Vulnerability analysis; Ft = Future threat.

[[Page 58865]]

A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment
of Its Habitat or Range

The Hawaiian Islands are located over 2,000 miles (mi) (3,200
kilometers (km)) from the nearest continent. This isolation has allowed
the few plants and animals that arrived by wind, water, or bird, to
evolve into many highly varied and endemic species. The only native
terrestrial mammals on the Hawaiian Islands include two bat taxa, the
Hawaiian hoary bat (Lasiurus cinereus semotus), and an extinct, unnamed
insectivorous bat (Ziegler 2002, p. 245). The native plants of the
Hawaiian Islands therefore evolved in the absence of mammalian
predators, browsers, or grazers, and subsequently, many of the native
species lost unneeded defenses against threats such as herbivory and
competition with aggressive, weedy plant species typical of continental
environments (Loope 1992, p. 11; Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 45; Wagner
et al. 1999, pp. 3-6). For example, Carlquist (in Carlquist and Cole
1974, p. 29) notes, ``Hawaiian plants are notably nonpoisonous, free
from armament, and free from many characteristics thought to be
deterrents to herbivores (oils, resins, stinging hairs, coarse
texture).'' In addition, species restricted to highly specialized
habitats (e.g., Hawaiian damselflies) or food sources (e.g., Hawaiian
yellow-faced bees) are particularly vulnerable to changes (from
nonnative species, hurricanes, fire, and projected climate change) in
their habitat (Carlquist and Cole 1974, pp. 28-29; Loope 1992, pp. 3-
6).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Agriculture and Urban
Development
Past land use practices such as agriculture or urban development
have resulted in little or no native vegetation below 2,000 ft (600 m)
throughout the Hawaiian Islands (TNC 2006), largely impacting the
anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry, and lowland mesic ecosystems,
including streams and wetlands that occur within these areas. Hawaii's
agricultural industries (e.g., sugar cane, pineapple) have been
declining in importance, and large tracts of former agricultural lands
are being converted into residential areas or left fallow (TNC 2006).
In addition, Hawaii's population has increased almost 10 percent in the
past 10 years, further increasing demands on limited land and water
resources in the islands (Hawaii Department of Business, Economic
Development and Tourism 2013, in litt.).
Development and urbanization of anchialine pool, coastal, lowland
dry, and lowland mesic ecosystems on Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and
Hawaii Island are a threat to the following species proposed for
listing in this rule:
On Oahu, the plants Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca
villosa, and Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense, and the
yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, and
H. longiceps.
On Molokai, the plants Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium
sandwicensium var. molokaiense, and Solanum nelsonii; the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly; and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H.
facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps.
On Maui, the plants Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca
villosa, and Solanum nelsonii, and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus
anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps.
On Lanai, the plants Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca
villosa, and Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense; the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly; and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus
anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps.
On Hawaii Island, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly and
the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris hawaiana (Daly and Magnacca 2003,
pp. 55, 173; FWS Rare Taxon Database 2005, in litt.; HBMP 2007, in
litt.; Magnacca 2007b, p. 188; IUCN 2007, in litt.; Kallstrom 2008, in
litt.; MNTF 2010, in litt.; Duvall 2011, in litt.; Magnacca and King
2013, pp. 22-25).
Although we are unaware of any comprehensive, site-by-site
assessment of wetland development in Hawaii (Erikson and Puttock 2006,
p. 40), Dahl (1990, p. 7) estimated that at least 12 percent of lowland
to upper-elevation wetlands in Hawaii had been converted to non-wetland
habitat by the 1980s. If only coastal plain (below 1,000 ft (300 m))
marshlands and wetlands are considered, it is estimated that 30 percent
were developed or converted to agricultural use (Kosaka 1990, in
litt.). Records show the reduction in area of these marshlands and
wetlands that provided habitat for many damselfly species, including
the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Englund 2001, p. 256; Rees and Reed
2013, Fig 2S). Once modified, these areas then lack the aquatic habitat
features that the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly requires for essential
life-history needs, such as pools of intermittent streams, ponds, and
coastal springs (Polhemus 1996, pp. 30-31, 36). Although the filling of
wetlands is regulated by section 404 of the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C.
1251 et seq.), the loss of riparian or wetland habitats utilized by the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly may still occur due to Hawaii's
population growth and development, with concurrent demands on limited
developable land and water resources. The State's Commission of Water
Resource Management (CWRM) recognizes the need to update the 2008 water
resource protection plan, and an update is currently under development
with a target completion date of 2015 (CWRM 2015, in litt.). In
addition, marshes have been slowly filled and converted to meadow
habitat as a result of sedimentation from increased storm water runoff
from upslope development, the accumulation of uncontrolled growth of
invasive vegetation, and blockage of downslope drainage (Wilson Okamoto
& Associates, Inc. 1993, pp. 3-4--3-5). Agriculture and urban
development have thus contributed to habitat destruction and
modification, and continue to be a threat to the habitat of the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly.
On Hawaii Island, it is estimated that up to 90 percent of the
anchialine pools have been destroyed or altered by human activities,
including bulldozing and filling of pools (Brock 2004, p. i; Bailey-
Brock and Brock 1993, p. 354). Dumping of trash and nonnative fish has
impacted anchialine pools on this island (Brock 2004, pp. 13-17) (see
``E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their Continued
Existence,'' below). Brock also noted that garbage like bottles and
cans appear to have no net negative impact, while the dumping of used
oil, oil filters, and grease has resulted in the disappearance of a
related anchialine pool shrimp Halocaridina rubra from a pool adjacent
to Honokohau Harbor on Hawaii Island. Lua O Palahemo (where Procaris
hawaiana occurs) on Hawaii Island is accessible to the public, and
dumping has previously occurred there (Brock 2004, pp. 13-17). We are
not aware of any dumping activities within the two Maui anchialine
pools known to be occupied by P. hawaiana; however, this threat remains
a possibility (Brock 2004, pp. 13-17).
Destruction and modification of Hylaeus habitat by urbanization and
land use conversion, including agriculture, has lead to the
fragmentation of foraging and nesting habitat of these species. In
particular, because native host plant species are known to be essential
to the yellow-faced bees for foraging of nectar and pollen, any further
loss of this habitat may reduce their long-term chances for recovery.
Additionally, further destruction and modification of Hylaeus habitat
is also likely to facilitate the

[[Page 58866]]

introduction and spread of nonnative plants within these areas (see
``Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Plants,'' below).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Ungulates
Nonnative ungulates have greatly impacted the native vegetation, as
well as the native fauna, of the Hawaiian Islands. Impacts to the
native species and ecosystems accelerated following the arrival of
Captain James Cook in 1778. The Cook expedition and subsequent
explorers intentionally introduced a European race of pigs (i.e.,
boars) and other livestock such as goats to serve as food sources for
seagoing explorers (Tomich 1986, pp. 120-121; Loope 1998, p. 752). The
mild climate of the islands, combined with lack of competitors or
predators, led to the successful establishment of large populations of
these mammals, to the detriment of native Hawaiian species and
ecosystems (Cox 1992, pp. 116-117). The presence of introduced mammals
is considered one of the primary factors underlying the modification
and destruction of native vegetation and habitats of the Hawaiian
Islands (Cox 1992, pp. 118-119). All of the 11 ecosystems on the main
islands (except Kahoolawe) are currently impacted by habitat
destruction resulting from the activities of various combinations of
nonnative ungulates, including pigs (Sus scrofa), goats (Capra hircus),
axis deer (Axis axis), black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus
columbianus), sheep (Ovis aries), mouflon (Ovis gmelini musimon) (and
mouflon-sheep hybrids), and cattle (Bos taurus). Habitat destruction or
modification by ungulates is a threat to 37 of the 39 plant species,
the band-rumped storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and
the seven yellow-faced bees proposed for listing in this rule (see
Table 3).
Pigs (Sus Scrofa)
The destruction or modification of habitat by pigs currently
affects five of the ecosystems (lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland
wet, montane wet, and montane mesic). Feral pigs are known to cause
deleterious impacts to ecosystem processes and functions throughout
their worldwide distribution (Campbell and Long 2009, p. 2319). Pigs
have been described as having the most pervasive and disruptive
nonnative influences on the unique ecosystems of the Hawaiian Islands
and are widely recognized as one of the greatest current threats (Aplet
et al. 1991, p. 56; Anderson and Stone 1993, p. 195; Anderson et al.
2007, in litt.). Introduced European pigs hybridized with smaller,
domesticated Polynesian pigs, became feral, and invaded forested areas,
especially mesic and wet forests, from low to high elevations, and are
present on all the main Hawaiian Islands except Lanai and Kahoolawe,
where they have been eradicated (Tomich 1986, pp. 120-121; Munro (1911-
1930) 2006, p. 85). By the early 1900s, feral pigs were already
recognized as a threat to these areas, and an eradication project was
conducted by the Hawaii Territorial Board of Agriculture and Forestry,
which removed 170,000 pigs from forests Statewide (Diong 1982, p. 63).
Feral pigs are extremely destructive and have both direct and
indirect impacts on native plant communities. While rooting in the
earth in search of invertebrates and plant material, pigs directly
impact native plants by disturbing and destroying vegetative cover, and
by trampling plants and seedlings. It has been estimated that at a
conservative rooting rate of 2 square yards (sq yd) (1.7 sq m) per
minute and only 4 hours of foraging per day, a single pig could disturb
over 1,600 sq yd (1,340 sq m) (or approximately 0.3 ac (0.1 ha)) of
groundcover per week (Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.). Feral pigs are a
major vector for promoting establishment and spread of competing
invasive nonnative plant species, such as Passiflora tarminiana (banana
poka) and Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava), by dispersing seeds
carried on their hooves and coats and in their feces (which also serve
to fertilize disturbed soil) (Diong 1982, pp. 169-170; Matson 1990, p.
245; Siemann et al. 2009, p. 547). Pigs also feed directly on native
plants such as Hawaiian tree ferns. Pigs preferentially eat the core of
tree-fern trunks, and these cored trunks then fill with rainwater and
serve as breeding sites for introduced mosquitoes that spread avian
malaria, with devastating consequences for Hawaii's native forest birds
(Baker 1975, p. 79). Additionally, rooting pigs contribute to erosion,
especially on slopes, by clearing vegetation and creating large areas
of disturbed soil (Smith 1985, pp. 190, 192, 196, 200, 204, 230-231;
Stone 1985, pp. 254-255, 262-264; Medeiros et al. 1986, pp. 27-28;
Scott et al. 1986, pp. 360-361; Tomich 1986, pp. 120-126; Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, pp. 64-65; Aplet et al. 1991, p. 56; Loope et al. 1991, pp.
1-21; Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 52; Nogueira-Filho et al. 2009, pp.
3677-3682; Dunkell et al. 2011, pp. 175-177). The resulting erosion
impacts native plant communities by contributing to watershed
degradation and by alteration of nutrient availability for plants, as
well as by directly damaging individual plants, and, in addition,
impacts aquatic animals by contributing to sedimentation in streams and
pools (Vitousek et al. 2009, pp. 3074-3086; Nogueira-Filho et al. 2009,
p. 3681; Cuddihy and Stone 1992, p. 667). The following 14 plants
proposed for listing in this rule are at risk from erosion and
landslides resulting from the activities of feral pigs: Cylcosorus
boydiae, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua
fluviatilis, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium
orbiculare, Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. helleri, P.
stachyoides, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, and Schiedea
pubescens. Thirty-one of the 39 plants (all except for Cyanea
kauaulaensis, Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca hawaiiensis, Hypolepis
hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium
sandwicensium var. molokaiense, Sanicula sandwicensis, and Solanum
nelsonii) proposed for listing in this rule are at risk of habitat
destruction and modification by feral pigs, and the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly and six of the seven yellow-faced bees (all except
Hylaeus longiceps) proposed for listing in this rule are at risk of
habitat destruction and modification by feral pigs (see Table 3).
Goats (Capra Hircus)
Feral goats currently destroy and modify habitat in nine of the
described ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet,
montane wet, montane mesic, montane dry, dry cliff, and wet cliff).
Goats, native to the Middle East and India, were successfully
introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in the late 1700s. Actions to
control populations began in the 1920s (Tomich 1986, pp. 152-153);
however, goats still occupy a wide variety of habitats on all the main
islands (except for Kahoolawe; see below), where they consume native
vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, strip tree bark, accelerate
erosion, and promote the invasion of nonnative plants (van Riper and
van Riper 1982, pp. 34-35; Stone 1985, p. 261; Kessler 2010, pers.
comm.). Kahoolawe was negatively impacted by ungulates beginning in
1793, with the introduction of goats and the addition of sheep (up to
15,000) and cattle (about 900) by ranchers between 1858 and 1941, with
the goat population estimated to be as high as 50,000 individuals by
1988 (KIRC 2014, in litt.; KIRC 2015, in litt.). Beginning in 1941, the
U.S. military used the entire island as a bombing range; for over 50
years, and in 1994, control of Kahoolawe was

[[Page 58867]]

returned to the State and the Kahoolawe Island Reserve Commission. The
remaining ungulates were eradicated in 1993 (McLeod 2014, in litt.).
Because they are able to access extremely rugged terrain, and have a
high reproductive capacity (Clark and Cuddihy 1980, pp. C-19-C2-20;
Culliney 1988, p. 336; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 64), goats are
believed to have completely eliminated some plant species from certain
islands (Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, p. 21). Goats can be highly
destructive to native vegetation and contribute to erosion by: (1)
Eating young trees and young shoots of plants before they become
established; (2) creating trails that damage native vegetative cover;
(3) destabilizing substrate and creating gullies that convey water; and
(4) dislodging stones from ledges that results in rockfalls and
landslides that damage or destroy native vegetation below (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, pp. 63-64). Feral goats forage along some cliffs where
band-rumped storm-petrels nest on Kauai, and may trample nests and
increase erosion (Scott et al. 1986, pp. 8, 352-357; Tomich 1986, pp.
152-153). The following 12 plants proposed for listing in this rule are
at risk from landslides or erosion caused by feral goats: Gardenia
remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, Labordia
lorenciana, Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia helleri, P. stachyoides,
Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense,
Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, and Schiedea pubescens;
and the band-rumped storm-petrel. Twenty-two of the 39 plants (all
except for Calamagrostis expansa, Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus
boydiae, Cyperus neokunthianus, Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra
var. pusilla, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Kadua haupuensis,
Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia brevidens, Portulaca villosa,
Pritchardia bakeri, Ranunculus hawaiensis, Schiedea diffusa ssp.
diffusa, Sicyos macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, Stenogyne kaalae ssp.
sherffii, and Wikstroemia skottsbergiana), and the band-rumped storm-
petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H.
kuakea proposed for listing in this rule, are at risk of habitat
destruction and modification by feral goats.
Axis Deer (Axis Axis)
Axis deer destroy and modify 8 of the 11 ecosystems (coastal,
lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane mesic, montane wet,
montane dry, and dry cliff). Axis deer were introduced to the Hawaiian
Islands for hunting opportunities on Molokai in 1868, on Lanai in 1920,
and on Maui in 1959 (Hobdy 1993, p. 207; Erdman 1996, pers. comm. in
Waring 1996, in litt, p. 2; Hess 2008, p. 2). Axis deer are primarily
grazers, but also browse numerous palatable plant species including
those grown as commercial crops (Waring 1996, p. 3; Simpson 2001, in
litt.). They prefer the lower, more openly vegetated areas for browsing
and grazing; however, during episodes of drought (e.g., from 1998 to
2001 on Maui (Medeiros 2010, pers. comm.)), axis deer move into urban
and forested areas in search of food (Waring 1996, p. 5; Nishibayashi
2001, in litt.). Like goats, axis deer are highly destructive to native
vegetation and contribute to erosion by eating young trees and young
shoots of plants before they can become established. Other axis deer
impacts include stripping bark from mature trees, creating trails, and
promoting erosion by destabilizing substrate; creating gullies that
convey water; and by dislodging stones from ledges that can cause
rockfalls and landslides, directly damaging vegetation (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, pp. 63-64).
On Molokai, axis deer likely occur at all elevations from sea level
to almost 5,000 ft (1,500 m) at the summit area (Kessler 2011, pers.
comm.). The most current population estimate for axis deer on the
island of Molokai is between 4,000 and 5,000 individuals (Anderson
2003, p. 119). Little management for deer control has been implemented
on Molokai, and this figure from more than a decade ago is likely an
underestimate of the axis deer population on this island today (Scott
et al. 1986, p. 360; Anderson 2003, p. 30; Hess 2008, p. 4). On Lanai,
axis deer were reported to number approximately 6,000 to 8,000
individuals in 2007 (The Aloha Insider 2008, in litt; WCities 2010, in
litt.). On Maui, five adult axis deer were released east of Kihei in
1959 (Hobdy 1993, p. 207; Hess 2008, p. 2). In 2013, the Maui Axis Deer
Working Group estimated that there may be 8,000 deer on southeast Maui
alone, based on helicopter surveys (Star Advertiser 2015, in litt.;
Hawaii News Now 2014, in litt.) According to Medeiros (2010, pers.
comm.), axis deer can be found in all but high-elevation ecosystems
(subalpine and alpine) and montane bogs on Maui, and are increasing at
such high rates on Maui that native forests are changing in
unprecedented ways. Additionally, Medeiros (2010, pers. comm.) asserted
that native plants will only survive in habitat that is fenced or
otherwise protected from the browsing and trampling effects of axis
deer. Kessler (2010, pers. comm.) and Hess (2010, pers. comm.) reported
the presence of axis deer up to 9,000 ft (2,700 m) on Maui, and Kessler
suggests that no ecosystem is safe from the negative impacts of these
animals. Montane bogs are also susceptible to impacts from axis deer.
As the native vegetation is removed by browsing and trampling, the soil
dries out, and invasive nonnative plants invade. Eventually, the bog
habitat and its associated native plants and animals are replaced by
grassland or shrubland dominated by nonnative plants (Mitchell et al.
2005, p. 6-32).
While axis deer are managed as game animals on these three islands,
the State does not permit their introduction to other Hawaiian Islands.
Recently (2010-2011), there was an illegal introduction of axis deer to
Hawaii Island as a game animal (Kessler 2011, pers. comm.; Aila 2012,
in litt.), and deer have now been observed across the southern portion
of the island including in Kohala, Kau, Kona, and Mauna Kea (HDLNR
2011, in litt.). The Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources--
Division of Forestry and Wildlife (HDLNR-HDOFAW) has developed a
response-and-removal plan, including a partnership now underway with
the Hawaii Department of Agriculture (HDOA), the Big Island Invasive
Species Committee (BIISC), Federal natural resource management
agencies, ranchers, farmers, private landowners, and concerned citizens
(BigIsland.com, June 6, 2011). Also, in response to the introduction
of axis deer to Hawaii Island, the Hawaii Invasive Species Council
drafted House Bill 2593 to amend House Revised Statutes (H.R.S.) 91,
which allows agencies to adopt emergency rules in the instances of
imminent peril to public health, including to livestock and poultry
health (BigIsland.com 2011, in litt.; Martin 2012, in litt.). This
emergency rule became permanent on June 21, 2012, when House Bill 2593
was enacted into law as Act 194 (State of Hawaii 2012, in litt.).
The following species proposed for listing in this rule are at risk
from the activities of axis deer: Gardenia remyi, Huperzia
stemmermanniae, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Nothocestrum
latifolium, Phyllostegia stachyoides, Portulaca villosa,
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense, Ranunculus mauiensis,
Schiedea pubescens, and Solanum nelsonii, and the orangeblack Hawaiiand
damselfly, and five of the yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus anthracinus,

[[Page 58868]]

H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps).
Black-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus)
Black-tailed deer destroy and modify habitat in 5 of the 11
ecosystems (lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane wet, montane mesic, and
dry cliff). The black-tailed deer is one of nine subspecies of mule
deer (Natural History Museum 2015, in litt.). On Kauai, black-tailed
deer were first introduced in 1961, for the purpose of sport hunting
(Tomich 1986, pp. 131-134). Currently, these deer are limited to the
western side of the island, where they feed on a variety of native
(e.g., Acacia koa and Coprosma spp.) and nonnative plants (van Riper
and van Riper 1982, pp. 42-46; Tomich 1986, p. 134). In addition to
their direct impacts on native plants (browsing), black-tailed deer
likely impact native plants indirectly by serving as a primary vector
for the spread of introduced plants by carrying their seeds or other
propagules on their coats and in their hooves and feces. Black-tailed
deer have been noted as a cause of habitat alteration in the Kauai
ecosystems (NTBG 2007, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Four of the 39 plants
proposed for listing in this rule (Asplenium diellaciniatum,
Nothocestrum latifolium, Ranunculus mauiensis, and Santalum involutum)
are at risk of habitat destruction and modification by black-tailed
deer.
Sheep (Ovis aries)
Four of the described ecosystems on Hawaii Island (lowland wet,
montane wet, montane dry, and wet cliff), are currently affected by
habitat modification and destruction due to the activities of domestic
sheep. Sheep were introduced to Hawaii Island in 1791, when Captain
Vancouver brought five rams and two ewes from California (Tomich 1986,
pp. 156-163). Soon after, stock was brought from Australia, Germany,
and the Mediterranean for sheep production (Tomich 1986, pp. 156-163;
Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 65-66). By the early 1930s, herds reached
close to 40,000 individuals (Scowcroft and Conrad 1992, p. 627).
Capable of acquiring the majority of their water needs by consuming
vegetation, sheep can inhabit dry forests in remote regions of Mauna
Kea and Mauna Loa, including the saddle between the two volcanoes.
Feral sheep browse and trample native vegetation and have decimated
large areas of native forest and shrubland on Hawaii Island (Tomich
1986, pp. 156-163; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 65-66). Browsing results
in the erosion of top soil that alters moisture regimes and micro-
environments, leading to the loss of native plant and animal taxa
(Tomich 1986, pp. 156-163; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 65-66). In
addition, nonnative plant seeds are dispersed into native forest by
adhering to sheep's wool coats (DOFAW 2002, p. 3). In 1962, game
hunters intentionally crossbred feral sheep with mouflon sheep and
released them on Mauna Kea, where they have done extensive damage to
the montane dry ecosystem (Tomich 1986, pp. 156-163). Over the past 30
years, attempts to protect the vegetation of Mauna Kea and the saddle
area between the two volcanoes have been only sporadically effective
(Hess 2008, pp. 1, 4). Currently, a large population of sheep (and
mouflon hybrids) extends from Mauna Kea into the saddle and northern
part of Mauna Loa, including State forest reserves, where they trample
and browse all vegetation, including endangered plants (Hess 2008, p.
1). One study estimated as many as 2,500 mouflon within just the Kau
district of the Kahuku Unit (Volcanoes National Park) in 2006 (Hess et
al. 2006, p. 10). Five of the 39 plants, Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca
hawaiiensis, Nothocestrum latifolium, Phyllostegia brevidens, and
Portulaca villosa, and the yellow-faced bee Hylaeus anthracinus, which
are proposed for listing in this rule, are reported to be at risk of
habitat destruction and modification by feral sheep (see Table 3).
Mouflon Sheep (Ovis gmelini musimon)
Mouflon sheep destroy and modify habitat in 7 of the 11 described
ecosystems on Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island (coastal, lowland dry,
lowland mesic, montane wet, montane mesic, montane dry, subalpine).
Native to Asia Minor, mouflon sheep were introduced to the islands of
Lanai and Hawaii in the 1950s as a managed game species, and are now
widely established on these islands (Tomich 1986, pp. 163-168; Cuddihy
and Stone 1990, p. 66; Hess 2008, p. 1). Due to their high reproductive
rate, the original population of 11 mouflon on the island of Hawaii
increased to more than 2,500 individuals in 36 years, even though
hunted as a game animal (Hess 2008, p. 3). Mouflon have decimated vast
areas of native shrubland and forest through grazing, browsing, and
bark stripping (Stone 1985, p. 271; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 63, 66;
Hess 2008, p. 3). Mouflon also create trails and pathways through
vegetation, resulting in soil compaction and increased runoff and
erosion. In some areas, the interaction of browsing and soil compaction
has led to a shift from native forest to grassy scrublands (Hess 2008,
p. 3). Mouflon only gather in herds when breeding, thus complicating
control techniques and hunting efficiency (Hess 2008, p. 3; Ikagawa
2011, in litt.). Currently, many of the current and proposed fence
exclosures on Hawaii Island constructed to protect rare species and
habitat are only 4 ft (1.3 m) in height, as they are designed to
exclude feral pigs, goats, and sheep; however, in actuality, a fence
height of at least 6 ft (2 m) is necessary to exclude mouflon (Ikagawa
2011, in litt.). Seven of the 39 plant species (Exocarpos menziesii,
Festuca hawaiiensis, Nothocestrum latifolium, Phyllostegia brevidens,
Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus hawaiensis, and Sicyos macrophyllus); the
yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H.
hilaris, and H. longiceps; and the band-rumped storm-petrel proposed
for listing in this rule are at risk of destruction and modification of
habitat resulting from the activities of mouflon sheep.
Cattle (Bos taurus)
Cattle destroy and modify habitat in 7 of the 11 ecosystems on Maui
and Hawaii Island (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet,
montane wet, montane mesic, and montane dry). Cattle, the wild
progenitors of which were native to Europe, northern Africa, and
southwestern Asia, were introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1793, and
large feral herds (as many as 12,000 on the island of Hawaii) developed
as a result of restrictions on killing cattle decreed by King
Kamehameha I (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 40). While small cattle
ranches were developed on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, west Maui, and
Kahoolawe, very large ranches of tens of thousands of acres were
created on east Maui and Hawaii Island (Stone 1985, pp. 256, 260;
Broadbent 2010, in litt.). Large areas of native forest were quickly
converted to grassland through the combined logging of native koa and
establishment of cattle ranches (Tomich 1986, p. 140; Cuddihy and Stone
1990, p. 47). Feral cattle can be found today on the islands of
Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii. Feral cattle eat native vegetation, trample
roots and seedlings, cause erosion, create disturbed areas into which
alien plants invade, and spread seeds of alien plants carried in their
feces and on their bodies. The forest in areas grazed by cattle rapidly
degrades into grassland pasture, and plant cover remains reduced for
many years following removal of cattle from an area. Increased nitrogen
availability through the feces of cattle contributes to the ingress of
nonnative plant species

[[Page 58869]]

(Kohala Mountain Watershed Partnership (KMWP) 2007, pp. 54-55; Laws et
al. 2010, in litt.). Furthermore, several alien grasses and legumes
purposely introduced for cattle forage have become invasive weeds
(Tomich 1986, pp. 140-150; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 29). According to
Kessler (2011, pers. comm.), approximately 300 individuals roam east
Maui as high as the subalpine ecosystem (i.e., to 9,800 ft (3,000 m)),
and feral cattle are occasional observed on west Maui. Feral cattle
(more than 100 individuals) are reported from remote regions of Hawaii
Island, including the back of Pololu and Waipio Valleys in the Kohala
Mountains, and the Kona Unit of the Hakalau Forest NWR (KMWP 2007, p.
55; USFWS 2010, pp. 3-15, 4-86). Nine of the 39 plant species (Huperzia
stemmermanniae, Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, Portulaca
villosa, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Schiedea pubescens,
Sicyos macrophyllus, and Solanum nelsonii) and four of the yellow-faced
bees (Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, and H. hilaris)
are currently at risk of habitat destruction or modification due to the
activities of feral cattle.
In summary, 37 of the 39 plant species (all except Cyanea
kauaulaensis and Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis), and 9 of the 10
animals (all except the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris hawaiana),
which are proposed for listing in this rule, are at risk of habitat
destruction and modification by feral ungulates including pigs, goats,
axis deer, black-tailed deer, sheep, mouflon, and cattle (see Table 3).
The effects of these nonnative animals include the destruction of
vegetative cover; trampling of plants and seedlings; direct consumption
of native vegetation; soil disturbance and sedimentation; dispersal of
nonnative plant seeds by animals; alteration of soil nitrogen
availability; and creation of open, disturbed areas conducive to
further invasion by nonnative pest plant species. All of these impacts
also can lead to the conversion of a native plant community to one
dominated by nonnative species (see ``Habitat Modification and
Destruction by Nonnative Plants,'' below). In addition, because these
animals inhabit terrain that is often steep and remote, foraging and
trampling contributes to severe erosion of watersheds and degradation
of streams and wetlands (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 59; Dunkell et al.
2011, pp. 175-194).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Plants
Ten of the 11 ecosystems (all but the anchialine pool ecosystem)
are currently at risk of habitat destruction and modification by
nonnative plants. Native vegetation on all of the main Hawaiian Islands
has undergone extreme alteration because of past and present land
management practices, including ranching, deliberate introduction of
nonnative plants and animals, and agriculture (Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
pp. 27, 58). The original native flora of Hawaii (present before human
arrival) consisted of about 1,000 taxa, 89 percent of which are endemic
(Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 3-6). Over 800 plant taxa have been introduced
to the Hawaiian Islands, brought to Hawaii for food or for cultural
reasons, to reforest areas destroyed by grazing feral and domestic
animals, or for horticultural or agricultural purposes (Scott et al.
1986, pp. 361-363; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 73). We have compiled
descriptions of 115 nonnative plant species reported to destroy and
modify the habitat of, or outcompete, 44 of the 49 species proposed for
listing in this rule (all except Exocarpos menziesii, Huperzia
stemmermanniae, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, the band-rumped
storm-petrel, and the anchialine pool shrimp). Fourteen of these
nonnative plants are included in the Hawaii Noxious Weed List (Hawaii
Department of Agriculture HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68).
Nonnative plants adversely impact native habitat in Hawaii by: (1)
Modifying the availability of light; (2) altering soil-water regimes;
(3) modifying nutrient cycling; and (4) altering fire regimes of native
plant communities (e.g., by fostering series of fires that burn
successively farther into native habitat, destroying native plants and
removing native plant habitat by altering microclimatic conditions to
favor nonnative species), thus ultimately converting native-dominated
plant communities to nonnative plant communities (Smith 1985, pp. 180-
181; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 73;
Vitousek et al. 1997, p. 6). The contribution of nonnative plants to
the extinction of native species in the lowland and upland habitats of
Hawaii is well-documented (Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone
1990, p. 74). The most often observed effect of nonnative plants on
native species is displacement through competition. Competition occurs
for water or nutrients, or it may involve allelopathy (chemical
inhibition of growth of other plants), shading, or precluding sites for
seedling establishment (Vitousek et al. 1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
p. 74).
Alteration of fire regimes represents an ecosystem-level change
caused by the invasion of nonnative plants, mainly grasses (D'Antonio
and Vitousek 1992, p. 73). Grasses generate standing dead material that
burns readily, and grass tissues with large surface-to-volume ratios
dry out quickly, contributing to flammability (D'Antonio and Vitousek
1992, p. 73). The finest size classes of grass material ignite and
spread fires under a broader range of conditions than do woody fuels or
even surface litter (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 73). The grass
life form allows rapid recovery following fire; there is little above-
ground structure. Grasslands also support a microclimate in which
surface temperatures are hotter, contributing to drier vegetative
conditions that favor fire (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 73). In
summary, nonnative plants directly and indirectly affect 44 species (36
plants, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all 7 yellow-faced
bees) proposed for listing in this rule, by modifying or destroying
their habitat, by removing their native host plants, or by direct
competition. Below, we have organized lists of the nonnative plants
reported to negatively affect each of 10 of the 11 ecosystems (the
anchialine pool ecosystem is not included). These lists include a total
of 115 nonnative plant species with the specific negative effects they
have on native ecosystems and the proposed species.
Nonnative Plants in the Coastal Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the coastal ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense,
and Solanum nelsonii) and the coastal ecosystem animals proposed for
listing (the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H.
longiceps), include the nonnative understory and subcanopy species
Asystasia gangetica (Chinese violet), Atriplex semibaccata, Conyza
bonariensis (hairy horseweed), Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), Lantana
camara (lantana), Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole), Neonotonia wightii
(glycine), Nicotiana glauca (tree tobacco), Pluchea carolinensis
(sourbush), P. indica (Indian fleabane), Stachytarpheta spp., and
Verbesina encelioides (golden crown-beard) (DOFAW 2007, pp. 20-22, 54-
58; HBMP 2010). Nonnative canopy species include Acacia farnesiana
(klu) and Prosopis pallida (HBMP 2010). In addition, the nonnative
grasses Cenchrus ciliaris (buffelgrass), Chloris

[[Page 58870]]

barbata (swollen fingergrass), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass),
Digitaria insularis (sourgrass), Setaria verticillata (bristly
foxtail), Urochloa maxima (guinea grass), and U. mutica (California
grass) negatively affect this ecosystem (HBMP 2010) (see ``Specific
Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Dry Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the lowland dry ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Nothocestrum latifolium and Portulaca villosa) and the lowland dry
ecosystem animals proposed for listing (the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans,
H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps) include the nonnative
understory and subcanopy species Ageratina adenophora (Maui pamakani),
Asystasia gangetica, Atriplex semibaccata, Conyza bonariensis, Lantana
camara, Leonotis nepetifolia (lion's ear), Leucaena leucocephala,
Neonotonia wightii, Nicotiana glauca, Passiflora foetida (love-in-a-
mist), P. suberosa (huehue haole), Stachytarpheta spp., and Stapelia
gigantea (giant toad plant) (Perlman 2007, p. 3; HBMP 2010). Nonnative
canopy species include Acacia confusa (Formosa koa), A. farnesiana,
Casuarina equisetifolia (ironwood), Chrysophyllum oliviforme
(satinleaf), Grevillea robusta (silk oak), Prosopis pallida, Psidium
guajava (common guava), and Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry)
(Perlman 2007, p. 7; HBMP 2010). In addition, the nonnative grasses
Andropogon virginicus (broomsedge), Cenchrus ciliaris, C. setaceus
(fountain grass), Chloris barbata, Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria
insularis, Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass), M. repens (natal
redtop), and Setaria verticillata negatively affect this ecosystem
(HBMP 2010) (see ``Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Mesic Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the lowland mesic ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Deparia kaalaana, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens,
Kadua fluviatilis, K. haupuensis, Lepidium orbiculare, Microlepia
strigosa var. mauiensis, Myrsine fosbergii, Nothocestrum latifolium,
Ochrosia haleakalae, Pritchardia bakeri, Santalum involutum, and Sicyos
lanceoloideus) and the lowland mesic ecosystem animals proposed for
listing (the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly and the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus facilis, H. kuakea, and H. mana) include the nonnative
understory and subcanopy species Ageratina riparia (Hamakua pamakani),
Anemone hupehensis var. japonica (Japanese anemone), Ardisia elliptica
(shoebutton ardisia), Asystasia gangetica, Blechnum appendiculatum (no
common name (NCN)), Buddleja asiatica, Caesalpinia decapetala (cat's
claw), Cestrum diurnum (day cestrum), Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse),
Conyza bonariensis, Cordyline fruticosa (ti, ki), Cuphea
carthagenensis, Cyclosorus dentatus, Delairea odorata (German ivy),
Erigeron karvinskianus (daisy fleabane), Hedychium coronarium (white
ginger), Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), Lantana camara, Leptospermum
scoparium (tea tree), Passiflora laurifolia (yellow granadilla, water
lemon), P. suberosa, Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry), R.
rosifolius (thimbleberry), Sphaeropteris cooperi, and Stachytarpheta
spp. (TNC 1997, pp. 10, 15; HBMP 2010). Nonnative canopy species
include Acacia confusa, Aleurites moluccana (kukui), Casuarina
equisetifolia, Chrysophyllum oliviforme, Cinchona pubescens (quinine),
Coffea arabica (coffee), Falcataria moluccana (albizia), Ficus
microcarpa (Chinese banyan), Fraxinus uhdei (tropical ash), Grevillea
robusta, Morella faya (firetree), Omalanthus populifolius (Queensland
poplar), Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava), P. guajava, Ricinus
communis (castor bean), Schefflera actinophylla (octopus tree), Schinus
terebinthifolius, Syzygium cumini (java plum), S. jambos (rose apple),
Tecoma stans (yellow elder), and Toona ciliata (Australian red cedar).
Additional threats are the nonnative grasses Cynodon dactylon,
Digitaria setigera, Ehrharta stipoides (meadow rice grass), Melinis
minutiflora, and Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass) (TNC 1997, p. 15;
Motley 2005, p. 109; HBMP 2010) (see ``Specific Nonnative Plant Species
Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Wet Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the lowland wet ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae, Cyperus neokunthianus,
Deparia kaalaana, Gardenia remyi, Kadua fluviatilis, Myrsine fosbergii,
Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. helleri, Santalum
involutum, Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, S. pubescens, Stenogyne
kaalae ssp. sherffii, and Wikstroemia skottsbergiana) include the
nonnative understory and subcanopy species Ageratina adenophora, A.
riparia, Ageratum conyzoides, Angiopteris evecta, Blechnum
appendiculatum, Buddleja asiatica, Cestrum diurnum, C. nocturnum (night
cestrum), Clidemia hirta, Conyza bonariensis, Cordyline fruticosa,
Cuphea carthagenensis, Cyclosorus dentatus, Drymaria cordata
(chickweed), Erechtites valerianifolia (fireweed), Erigeron
karvinskianus (daisy fleabane), Hedychium gardnerianum (kahili ginger),
Juncus planifolius (bog rush), Leptospermum scoparium (tea tree),
Passiflora edulis (passion fruit), P. foetida, P. suberosa, Persicaria
punctata (water smartweed), Pterolepis glomerata (NCN), Rubus argutus,
R. rosifolius, Sphaeropteris cooperi, Tibouchina herbacea (glorybush),
and Youngia japonica (oriental hawksbeard); and the nonnative canopy
species Ardisia elliptica, Cinnamomum burmannii (padang cassia), Coffea
arabica, Cryptomeria japonica (tsugi pine), Eucalyptus spp., Falcataria
moluccana, Heliocarpus popayanensis (moho), Miconia calvescens
(miconia), Morella faya, Pimenta dioica (allspice), Psidium
cattleianum, P. guajava, Schefflera actinophylla, Schinus
terebinthifolius, and Syzigium jambos (TNC 1997, p. 10; HBMP 2010).
Nonnative grasses that negatively impact the lowland wet ecosystem
include Axonopus fissifolius (narrow-leaved carpetgrass), Cortaderia
jubata (pampas grass), Ehrharta stipoides, Melinis minutiflora,
Oplismenus hirtellus (basketgrass), Paspalum conjugatum, Sacciolepis
indica (glenwood grass), Urochloa maxima, and U. mutica (TNC 1997, p.
10; Erickson and Puttock 2006, p. 270) (see ``Specific Nonnative Plant
Species Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Montane Wet Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the montane wet ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Calamagrostis expansa, Cyclosorus boydiae, Cyrtandra hematos,
Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis,
Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, Myrsine fosbergii, Phyllostegia
brevidens, P. helleri, P. stachyoides, Ranunculus mauiensis, Schiedea
diffusa ssp. diffusa, S. pubescens, and Sicyos macrophyllus) include
the nonnative understory and subcanopy species Ageratina adenophora, A.
riparia, Ageratum conyzoides (maile honohono), Anemone hupehensis var.
japonica, Blechnum appendiculatum, Buddleja asiatica, Cestrum
nocturnum, Clidemia hirta, Cyclosorus dentatus, Drymaria cordata,
Erechtites valerianifolia, Erigeron karvinskianus, Hedychium
gardnerianum, Hypochaeris radicata (hairy cat's ear), Juncus effusus,
J. ensifolius, J. planifolius, Lantana camara, Lapsana communis
(nipplewort), Persicaria punctata,

[[Page 58871]]

Rubus argutus, R. ellipticus (yellow Himalayan raspberry), R.
rosifolius, Sphaeropteris cooperi, Tibouchina herbacea, Ulex europaeus
(gorse), and Youngia japonica, and the nonnative canopy species
Cinnamomum burmannii, Cryptomeria japonica, Eucalyptus spp., Morella
faya, Psidium cattleianum, and Schinus terebinthifolius (HBMP 2010).
Nonnative grasses that negatively impact the montane wet ecosystem
include Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet vernalgrass), Axonopus
fissifolius, Cortaderia jubata, Ehrharta stipoides, Holcus lanatus
(common velvet grass), Melinis minutiflora, Paspalum conjugatum,
Sacciolepis indica (glenwood grass), and Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass)
(see ``Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Montane Mesic Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the montane mesic ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Asplenium diellaciniatum, Labordia lorenciana, Microlepia strigosa
var. mauiensis, Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia stachyoides,
Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea
pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus) include the nonnative
understory and subcanopy species Ageratina adenophora, Buddleja
asiatica, Clidemia hirta, Cotoneaster pannosus, Cyclosorus dentatus,
Delairea odorata, Epilobium ciliatum (willow herb), Lantana camara,
Leptospermum scoparium, Passiflora edulis, P. tarminiana, Rubus
argutus, R. rosifolius, and Ulex europaeus (Leeward Haleakala Watershed
Partnership (LHWP) 2006, p. 25; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2009, 14 pp.); and the
nonnative canopy species Cinchona pubescens, Fraxinus uhdei, Morella
faya, Pinus spp., Psidium cattleianum, and Schinus terebinthifolius.
Nonnative grasses that negatively impact the montane mesic ecosystem
include Andropogon virginicus, Cenchrus setaceus, Cortaderia jubata,
Cynodon dactylon, Ehrharta stipoides, Holcus lanatus, Melinis
minutiflora, Paspalum conjugatum, and Setaria palmifolia (HBMP 2010)
(see ``Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Montane Dry Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the montane dry ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Festuca hawaiiensis, Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R.
mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, and Sicyos macrophyllus) include the
nonnative understory and subcanopy species Clidemia hirta, Cotoneaster
pannosus, Heterotheca grandiflora (telegraph weed), Rubus argutus, and
Senecio madagascariensis, and the nonnative canopy species Grevillea
robusta, Psidium cattleianum, and Schinus terebinthifolius (HBMP 2010).
Nonnative grasses such as Cenchrus setaceus and Melinis minutiflora
negatively impact the montane dry ecosystem (see ``Specific Nonnative
Plant Species Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Subalpine Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the subalpine ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Ranunculus hawaiensis and Sanicula sandwicensis) include the nonnative
understory and subcanopy species Ageratina adenophora, Cotoneaster
pannosus, Epilobium billardierianum ssp. cinereum (willow herb), E.
ciliatum, Hypochoeris radicata, Lapsana communis, Passiflora
tarminiana, and Rubus argutus, and the nonnative canopy species Pinus
spp. Nonnative grasses such as Anthoxanthum odoratum, Cenchrus
setaceus, Cynodon dactylon, Dactylis glomerata (cocksfoot), and Holcus
lanatus negatively impact the montane dry ecosystem (see ``Specific
Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Dry Cliff Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the dry cliff ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, and Sicyos
lanceoloideus) and the dry cliff ecosystem animal, the band-rumped
storm-petrel, include the nonnative understory and subcanopy species
Ageratina adenophora, A. riparia, Blechnum appendiculatum, Clidemia
hirta, Erigeron karvinskianus, Hypochoeris radicata, Kalanchoe pinnata,
Lantana camara, Lapsana communis, Leucaena leucocephala, Lythrum
maritimum (loosestrife), Passiflora suberosa, Pluchea carolinensis,
Prunella vulgaris, and Rubus rosifolius, and the nonnative canopy
species Acacia confusa, Casuarina equisetifolia, Grevillea robusta,
Melia azedarach (chinaberry), Psidium cattleianum, P. guajava, Schinus
terebinthifolius, Sphaeropteris cooperi, Syzygium cumini, Tecoma stans,
and Toona ciliata (HBMP 2010). Nonnative grasses that negatively impact
the dry cliff ecosystem include Andropogon virginicus, Cenchrus
setaceus, Dactylis glomerata, Digitaria insularis, Ehrharta stipoides,
Holcus lanatus, Melinis minutiflora, and Urochloa maxima (HBMP 2010)
(see ``Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,'' below).
Nonnative Plants in the Wet Cliff Ecosystem: Nonnative plants
threatening the wet cliff ecosystem plants proposed for listing
(Phyllostegia brevidens, P. helleri, Ranunculus mauiensis, and Schiedea
pubescens) and the wet cliff ecosystem animal, the band-rumped storm-
petrel, include the nonnative understory and subcanopy species
Ageratina adenophora, Blechnum appendiculatum, Clidemia hirta,
Erechtites valerianifolia, Erigeron karvinskianus, Hedychium
gardnerianum, Juncus effusus, Passiflora suberosa, Pterolepis
glomerata, Rubus argutus, R. rosifolius, and Tibouchina herbacea, and
the nonnative canopy species Ardisia elliptica, Buddleja asiatica,
Heliocarpus popayanensis, Psidium cattleianum, P. guajava, Schinus
terebinthifolius, and Toona ciliata (HBMP 2010). Nonnative grasses that
negatively impact the wet cliff ecosystem include Axonopus fissifolius,
Ehrharta stipoides, Melinis minutiflora, Oplismenus hirtellus, Paspalum
conjugatum, and Setaria palmifolia (HBMP 2010) (see ``Specific
Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,'' below).
Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts: Destruction and
modification of habitat, and competition, by nonnative plants represent
ongoing threats to 45 species (36 plants, the band-rumped storm-petrel,
the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all 7 yellow-faced bees)
proposed for listing in this rule throughout their ranges. Nonnative
plants adversely affect microhabitat by modifying availability of light
and nutrient cycling processes, and by altering soil-water regimes.
Some nonnative plants may release chemicals that inhibit growth of
other plants. They also alter fire regimes leading to incursions of
fire-tolerant, nonnative plant species in native habitat. These
competitive advantages allow nonnative plants to convert native-
dominated plant communities to nonnative plant communities (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, p. 74; Vitousek 1992, pp. 33-35).
The Hawaii Weed Risk Assessment (HWRA) is cited in many of the
descriptions below. This assessment was created as a research
collaboration between the University of Hawaii and the U.S. Forest
Service for use in Hawaii and other high Pacific islands (i.e.,
volcanic in origin, as opposed to low-lying atolls), and is an
adaptation of the Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment protocol
developed in the 1990s (Denslow and Daehler 2004, p. 1). The
Australian/New Zealand protocol was developed to screen plants proposed
for introduction into those countries, while the Hawaii-Pacific Weed
Risk Assessment (HWRA) was developed to evaluate species already

[[Page 58872]]

used in landscaping, gardening, and forestry, and is also used to
predict whether or not a nonnative plant species is likely to become
invasive. Not all nonnative plant species present in Hawaii have been
assessed, and information on propensity for invasiveness is lacking
from some of the following descriptions. When known, we describe
specific negative impacts of individual nonnative plants that threaten
45 of the 49 species proposed for listing.
Acacia confusa (Formosa koa) is a tree introduced to
Hawaii from Taiwan and the Philippine Islands in 1915 by the Board of
Agriculture and Forestry and the Hawaiian Sugar Planter's Association
for use as a windbreak; it is naturalized on all the main islands
except Niihau (Geesink et al. 1999, p. 641). This species forms
monotypic stands at lower elevations that prevent establishment of
native plants. Seeds present in the ground germinate profusely after
fire, allowing it to outcompete native plants (Pacific Islands
Ecosystems at Risk (PIER) 2008). This species occurs in lowland dry,
lowland mesic, and dry cliff habitats on all the main islands except
Niihau (Geesink 1999, p. 641).
Acacia farnesiana (klu) is a shrub to 13 ft (4 m) tall,
native to the Neotropics, and formerly cultivated in Hawaii for an
attempted perfume industry. This species is thorny and forms dense
thickets, and regenerates quickly after fire. The seeds are dispersed
by ungulates that eat the pods (PIER 2011). It is now naturalized
(i.e., initially introduced from another area, and now reproducing in
the wild) in coastal and lowland dry areas on all of the main Hawaiian
Islands except Niihau (Geesink et al. 1999, p. 641). According to the
HWRA for A. farnesiana, this species has a high risk of invasiveness or
a high risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2011).
Ageratina adenophora (Maui pamakani) is native to tropical
America, and has naturalized in lowland to subalpine, dry to wet
forest, including cliffs, on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai,
Lanai, and Maui (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 254-255; Wagner et al. 2012,
p. 9). This shrub is 3 to 5 ft (1 to 1.5 m) tall with trailing branches
that root on contact with the soil. It forms dense mats, which prevent
regeneration of native plants (Anderson et al. 1992, p. 315). It is
considered a harmful weed in agriculture, especially in rangeland,
because it often displaces more desirable vegetation or native species,
and is fatally toxic to horses and most livestock. The eupatorium gall
fly, Procecidochares utilis, was introduced to Hawaii in 1944 for
control of Maui pamakani, with some success in suppression of some
infestations, but not those in higher rainfall areas (Bess and Haramoto
1959, p. 248; Bess and Haramoto 1972, pp. 166, 175).
Ageratina riparia (Hamakua pamakani) is a subshrub native
to Mexico and the West Indies that spreads from a creeping rootstock
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 255). This species forms dense mats that
prevent regeneration of native plants (Davis et al. 1992, p. 427), and
is naturalized in dry cliffs, lowland mesic, lowland wet, and montane
wet forest on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (Wagner et al.
1999, p. 255; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 9).
Ageratum conyzoides (maile honohono) is a perennial herb
native to Central and South America and now widespread on all the main
Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 254-255). This species
invades lowland and montane wet areas, tolerates shade, and can
outcompete and displace native plants. It produces many thousands of
seeds that spread by wind and water, with over half the seeds
germinating shortly after they are shed (PIER 2007).
Aleurites moluccana (kukui) is a spreading, tall tree (66
ft; 20 m), native to Malesia, and considered a Polynesian introduction
to Hawaii. It is now a significant component of the lowland mesic
valley vegetation from sea level to 2,300 ft (700 m) on all the main
islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 598). According to the HWRA, this
species has a high risk of invasiveness or a high risk of becoming a
serious pest (PIER 2008). This species tolerates a wide range of soil
conditions and forms dense thickets, shading out other plants (Wagner
et al. 1999, p. 598).
Andropogon virginicus (broomsedge) is a perennial bunch
grass native to northeastern America and naturalized on Kauai, Oahu,
Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 2012, p. 88). It occurs
along roadsides and in disturbed dry to mesic forest and shrubland, and
cliffs (O'Connor 1999, p. 1497). Seeds are easily distributed by wind,
clothing, vehicles, and animals (Smith 1989, pp. 60-69). This species
can outcompete and displace native plants, and may release allelopathic
substances that prevent the establishment of other plants (Rice 1972,
pp. i, 752-755). This species is fire-adapted, and has become dominant
in areas subjected to natural or human-caused fires (Mueller-Dombois
1972, pp. 1-2), and is included in the Hawaii State Noxious Weed List
(HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68).
Anemone hupehensis var. japonica (Japanese anemone), an
herbaceous perennial, is native to China and is naturalized and locally
common in open, wet areas along roadsides and in lowland mesic and
montane wet forest on Hawaii Island (Duncan 1999, p. 1087). This
species has wind-distributed seeds, spreads by suckers, and resists
grazing because of toxic chemicals that induce vomiting when ingested.
According to the HWRA, this species has a high risk of invasiveness or
a high risk of becoming a pest species (PIER 2011).
Angiopteris evecta (mule's foot fern) is native throughout
much of the South Pacific, including Australia and New Guinea, and is
naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island
(Palmer 2003, p. 49; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 103). Rhizomes form a
massive trunk, and fronds may grow up to 23 ft (7 m) long and 10 ft (3
m) wide, allowing this species to form dense stands and displace and
shade out native plants in lowland wet forest (Global Invasive Species
Database (GISD) 2011; Palmer 2003, pp. 48-49). It has become the
dominant understory plant in some valleys on Oahu.
Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet vernalgrass) is a perennial
bunchgrass native to Eurasia and now naturalized on Kauai, Oahu,
Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island, in pastures, disturbed areas in
montane wet forest, and sometimes subalpine shrubland (O'Connor 1999,
p. 1498; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 88). This grass forms extensive ground
cover, crowding out and preventing reestablishment of native plants
(PIER 2008).
Ardisia elliptica (shoebutton ardisia) is a branched shrub
native to Sri Lanka that is now naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, and
Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 932-933; Wagner et al. 2012, p.
53). This species is shade-tolerant and can rapidly form dense,
monotypic stands, preventing establishment of native species (Global
Invasive Species Database (GISD) 2005). Its fruit are attractive to
birds, which then spread the seeds over the landscape. According to the
HWRA, this species has a high risk of invasiveness or a high risk of
becoming a serious pest (PIER 2008). This species occurs in lowland
mesic and wet forest, and on wet cliffs (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 933).
Asystasia gangetica (Chinese violet) is a perennial herb
native to India, Malay Peninsula, and Africa (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
168). This species can grow over shrubs and smother all vegetation in
the herbaceous layer, covering native plants and preventing their
establishment (Smith 1985, p. 185). According to the HWRA, this species
has a high risk of invasiveness or a high

[[Page 58873]]

risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2009). This species occurs in all
low-elevation coastal, dry and mesic habitats on Midway Atoll, and all
the main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 168; Wagner et al.
2012, p. 3).
Atriplex semibaccata (Australian saltbush) is a drought-
and saline-tolerant, low-growing shrub, native to Australia, which
forms dense spreading mats and displaces native plants. It was
introduced to Hawaii in 1895 as an experimental forage grass for
cattle; it is now naturalized in coastal and lowland dry to seasonally
wet areas on all the main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
535). The seeds are attractive to fruit eaters, which may contribute to
its dispersal (California Invasive Plant Council 2006, in litt.).
Axonopus fissifolius (carpetgrass) is a pasture grass that
forms dense mats with tall foliage. This species does well in soils
with low nitrogen levels, and can outcompete native plants in wet
forests and bogs, an impact exacerbated by drought (Olaa Kilauea
Partnership 2007, p. 3). The species is not subject to any major
diseases or insect pests, and recovers quickly from fire. Seeds are
readily spread by water, vehicles, and grazing animals (O'Connor 1999,
pp. 1500-1502; Cook et al. 2005, p. 4). This species occurs in lowland
and montane wet pastures, cliffs, wet forests, and bogs on all the main
islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (O'Connor 1999, p. 1502; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 88).
Blechnum appendiculatum (NCN) is a fern with fronds to 23
in (60 cm) long. This species occurs on all the main islands, and forms
large colonies in closed canopy lowland and montane wet forest,
especially on rocky substrate or cliffs, outcompeting and displacing
native species (Palmer 2003, pp. 79-81).
Buddleja asiatica (dog tail) is a shrub or small tree
native to Pakistan, India, China, Taiwan, Malesia, and the Mariana
Islands, and is naturalized on Kauai, Maui, Oahu, Lanai, and Hawaii
Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 415; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 20). This
species can tolerate a wide range of lowland and montane mesic and wet
habitats, and forms dense thickets, rapidly spreading into forest and
lava and cinder substrate areas, displacing native vegetation (Wagner
et al. 1999, p. 415; PIER 2011).
Caesalpinia decapetala (cat's claw), a prickley climber or
shrub, native to tropical Asia, is naturalized on all the main Hawaiian
Islands except Kahoolawe (Geesink et al. 1999, p. 647). This sprawling,
noxious shrub forms large, impenetrable thickets; is used as a fence
plant for ranches (Geesink et al. 1999, p. 647); and is a pest in
lowland mesic habitat (Smith 1985, p. 187). Seeds are dispersed by
rodents, birds, and human activities (Smith 1985, p. 187). According to
the HWRA, this species has a high risk of invasiveness or a high risk
of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2013).
Casuarina equisetifolia (ironwood), native to Australia,
is a tall tree (66 ft; 20 m) and is naturalized in the Northwest
Hawaiian Islands on Kure, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes, Lisianski,
Laysan, French Frigate Shoals, and all of the main Hawaiian Islands
(Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 528-529; Cronk and Fuller 2001, p. 144 in PIER
2011). This species is a pioneer plant, salt-resistant, that forms
monotypic stands in lowland dry and mesic areas and cliffs, under which
little else grows (PIER 2011). This species spreads by root suckers,
and the roots and needle litter may exude a chemical that kills or
inhibits the growth of other plants. Ironwood is fire-resistant, and
the seeds are wind- and water-dispersed, further contributing to its
competitive advantage over native species (Staples and Herbst 2005, p.
229).
Cenchrus ciliaris (buffelgrass), native to Africa and
tropical Asia, is naturalized on Midway Atoll and all the main islands
except Niihau (O'Connor 1999, p. 1512; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 90). This
fire-adapted grass provides fuel for fires and recovers quickly after
fire, rapidly increasing its cover because it can reproduce through
vegetative fragmentation and is readily dispersed by animals or other
vectors. These attributes allow it to displace native plants and alter
fire regimes (PIER 2007). This species occurs in coastal and lowland
dry areas (O'Connor 1999, p. 1512).
Cenchrus setaceus (formerly known as Pennisetum setaceum;
fountain grass), a densely tufted grass, is an aggressive colonizer
that outcompetes most native species. Native to northern Africa, C.
setaceus is naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Lanai, Kahoolawe, and
Hawaii Island (O'Connor 1999, p. 1581; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 99). This
fire-adapted grass burns swiftly and hot, causing extensive damage to
the surrounding habitat (O'Connor 1999, p. 1581). In Hawaii, this
species occurs in lowland and montane, mesic to dry, and subalpine,
open areas, cliffs, barren lava flows, and cinder fields (O'Connor
1999, p. 1581). This species is included on the Hawaii State Noxious
Weed list as Pennisetum setaceum (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68).
Cestrum diurnum (day cestrum), a shrub up to 7 ft (2 m)
tall, is native to the West Indies, and cultivated for its fragrant
flowers. It is naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai (Symon 1999, p.
1254). This species invades lowland mesic and wet areas, forming dense
thickets. Seeds are dispersed by birds; however, the seeds are
poisonous to humans and other mammals (Florida Exotic Pest Plant
Council (FEPC) 2011).
Cestrum nocturnum (night cestrum), a shrub or small tree
native to the Antilles and Central America, was cultivated in Hawaii
prior to 1871, and is naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, and Lanai
(Symon 1999, pp. 1254-1255; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 70). It forms dense,
impenetrable thickets in lowland and montane wet forest and open areas.
According to the HWRA, this species has a high risk of invasiveness or
a high risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2010).
Chloris barbata (swollen fingergrass), native to Central
and South America and the West Indies, is widely naturalized on Kure
Atoll, Midway Atoll, and all the main Hawaiian islands (O'Connor 1999,
p. 1514; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 90). This species developed resistance
to Group C1/5 herbicides in Hawaii in 1987, and infests roadsides and
sugarcane plantations (WeedScience.com 2009; HBMP 2010). According to
the HWRA, this species has a high risk of invasiveness or a high risk
of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2008) because of its ability to
outcompete native species. It occurs in coastal and lowland dry,
disturbed areas, roadsides, vacant lots, and pastures (O'Connor 1999,
p. 1514).
Chrysophyllum oliviforme (satinleaf) is a small tree
native to Florida, the West Indies, and Central America, and is
naturalized on Kauai, Niihau, Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Pennington
1999, p. 1231; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 69; PIER 2009). Birds disperse
the fleshy fruit and the species becomes a dominant component in native
forest (Pennington 1999, p. 1231; Maui Land and Pineapple Company 2002,
pp. 20, A1-A4). According to the HWRA, this species has a high risk of
invasiveness or a high risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2006).
This species has been documented in lowland dry and mesic forest in
Hawaii.
Cinchona pubescens (quinine) is a densely-canopied tree up
to 33 ft (10 m) tall. It is native to Central and South America, and it
is widely cultivated for quinine (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1120). A small
plantation was started on Maui in 1868, and this species was also
planted by State foresters on Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island between
1928 and 1947. Currently, the only naturalized populations are reported
from Maui and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1120). It
reproduces with wind-

[[Page 58874]]

dispersed seeds and also vegetatively by suckering, resulting in
displacement of native lowland and montane mesic forest (GISD 2011;
PIER 2013).
Cinnamomum burmannii (padang cassia), a tree native to
Indonesia, is cultivated and now naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui,
Lanai, and Hawaii Island (van der Werff 1999, p. 846; Wagner et al.
2012, p. 48). Seeds are bird-dispersed (Starr et al. 2003). On Maui,
this species is included in the weed control program at Puu Kukui
Preserve, as it becomes a dominant component of lowland and montane wet
forest habitat (Maui Land and Pineapple Company (MLP) 2002, p. 20).
Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse) is a noxious shrub in the
Melastomataceae family that forms a dense understory, shades out native
plants and prevents their regeneration, and is considered a significant
nonnative plant threat (Wagner et al. 1985, p. 41; Smith 1989, p. 64;
Almeda 1999, p. 906). Clidemia hirta is native to the Neotropics, and
is naturalized on all the main islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau
(Almeda 1999, p. 906; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 51). All plants in the
Melastomataceae family are included in the Hawaii State Noxious Weed
List (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68) because of their high
germination rates, rapid growth, early maturity, ability of fragments
to root, possible asexual reproduction, and efficient seed dispersal
(especially by birds that are attracted by the plants' copious
production of berries) (Smith 1985, p. 194; University of Florida
Herbarium 2006; http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/invweed/weedsHI.html).
These characteristics enable the plants to be aggressive and successful
competitors in Hawaiian lowland and montane, dry, mesic, and wet
ecosystems.
Coffea arabica (Arabian coffee), a shrub or tree to 17 ft
(5 m) tall, native to Ethiopia, is widely cultivated in Hawaii as a
commercial crop. It was naturalized in Hawaii by the mid-1800s in mesic
to wet sites, usually in valleys or along streambeds on all the main
islands except Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 1120-1121). This species
is shade-tolerant, and can form dense stands in the forest understory,
displacing and shading out lowland mesic and lowland wet native
vegetation. The seeds are dispersed by birds and rats (PIER 2008).
Conyza bonariensis (hairy horseweed) is an annual herb
common in urban and nonurban areas in Hawaii. It occurs from coastal
and lowland dry areas to lowland mesic and lowland wet forest, on Kure
Atoll, Midway Atoll, Laysan, French Frigate Shoals, and all of the main
Hawaiian Islands, where it outcompetes and displaces native vegetation
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 288).
Cordyline fruticosa (ki, ti), a shrub to 12 ft (4 m) tall,
is considered a Polynesian introduction to Hawaii. It was extensively
cultivated and occurs in lowland mesic and wet valleys and forest and
is naturalized on all the main islands except Kahoolawe (Wagner et al.
1999, pp.1348-1350). It can become a dominant element of the understory
(Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) 1989).
Cortaderia jubata (pampas grass), a large, clump-forming,
perennial grass native to the northern Andes, was first reported in
1987 in Hawaii from the slopes of Haleakala on east Maui, where it had
escaped cultivation (Wagner et al. 2012, p. 91; PIER 2013). This
species is a serious pest in California, New Zealand, and South Africa,
and is included in the Hawaii State Noxious Weed List (Chimera et al.
1999, p. 3; HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). Pampas grass has
razor-sharp leaves, produces abundant seed, and spreads readily,
allowing it to outcompete native species in the lowland wet, montane
wet, and montane mesic ecosystems (Staples and Herbst 2005, p. 744).
Cotoneaster pannosus (silver-leaf cotoneaster) is a shrub
native to China that is cultivated in Hawaii (Volcano on Hawaii Island
and Kula, Maui) (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1100; Wagner et al. 2012, p.
61). Previously thought to be contained, this species has escaped and
become a threat to native montane mesic, montane dry, and subalpine
ecosystems on Maui and Hawaii Island (Oppenheimer 2010, in litt.). The
attractive, bird-dispersed fruits, aggressive root systems, and
tendency to shade out and smother native plants contribute to the
invasiveness of this species (PIER 2010).
Cryptomeria japonica (Japanese cedar, tsugi) is a
pyramidal evergreen tree native to China and Japan. This tree grows to
60 ft (18m) and has dense foliage (North Carolina State University
2006; University of Connecticut 2006). Its life-history traits of small
seed mass, short juvenile period, and short intervals between large
seed crops contribute to its invasiveness (Richardson and Rejmanek
2004, p. 321). This species is also highly flammable and is not
recommended for landscaping in fire-prone areas (Scripps Ranch Fire
Safe Council 2006, in litt.). It occurs in lowland wet and montane wet
areas of Maui and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 2012, p. 107;
Smithsonian Institution Online Herbarium Database 2015, in litt.).
Cuphea carthagenensis (tarweed) is an annual or short-
lived perennial herb native to South America and naturalized in lowland
mesic to wet areas on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii
Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 866; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 49). This
species forms dense, shrubby mats that displace and prevent the
establishment of native plants (Hawaii National Park 1959, p. 7; Wagner
et al. 1999, p. 866).
Cyclosorus dentatus (previously Christella dentata) (NCN)
is a medium-sized fern widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics
of the Old World, now widespread as a weed in the Americas. In Hawaii,
this species is most common in disturbed lowland and montane mesic and
wet habitats on all the main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 2012, p.
103). This fern hybridizes with the endemic Cyclosorus cyatheoides,
forming extensive numbers of the sterile hybrid (Palmer 2003, pp. 88-
90).
Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass, manienie) is a strongly
rhizomatous or stoloniferous grass native to tropical Africa (O'Connor
1999, p. 1520). Introduced to Hawaii in 1935, it is widely cultivated
and naturalized on Kure, Midway, Pearl and Hermes atolls, Laysan,
French Frigate Shoals, and all of the main Hawaiian Islands except
Niihau (O'Connor 1999, p. 1520; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 91). This grass
occurs in rocky or sandy sites in dry and mesic areas, from coastal to
alpine habitats, and forms a solid mat where seepage may be present.
Cynodon dactylon outcompetes native species as it readily roots at the
nodes, covering an area of up to 26 sq ft (2.5 sq m) within 150 days,
with culms up to 4 ft (130 cm) long (PIER 2013). According to the HWRA,
this species has a high risk of invasiveness or a high risk of becoming
a serious pest (PIER 2013).
Dactylis glomerata (cocksfoot), a tufted, perennial grass
native to Europe, is widely cultivated and now naturalized in Hawaii.
It is abundant in pastures and along trails and roadsides on Kauai,
Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii (O'Connor 1999, p. 1521). This species
establishes in disturbed sites in dry cliff to subalpine habitat, and
forms dense mats that suppress growth of native grasses and herbaceous
plants (PIER 2010).
Delairea odorata (formerly known as Senecio mikanioides,
German ivy), a rapidly growing perennial vine, native to South Africa,
is naturalized on Maui and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 356;
Staples and Herbst 2005, p. 169; Benitez et al. 2008, p. 38; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 16). This bushy vine covers and suppresses growth and
germination of

[[Page 58875]]

native species by rooting at leaf nodes and carpeting other plants and
the ground. It can also grow in forest canopy, where it smothers and
kills native trees in lowland and montane mesic areas (Benitez et al.
2008, p. 38; PIER 2012; Weeds of Blue Mountains Bushland 2011, in
litt.).
Digitaria insularis (sourgrass) is a densely tufted,
perennial grass up to 5 ft (150 cm) tall. It is native to the
Neotropics, and is naturalized on Midway Atoll and all the main
Hawaiian islands (O'Connor 1999, p. 1531; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 92).
This grass forms dense mats that crowd out native species (Motooka et
al. 2003, in litt.) in disturbed coastal, lowland dry and cliff
habitats (O'Connor 1999, p. 1531).
Digitaria setigera (kukaepuaa, itchy crabgrass), an annual
3-ft tall (80 cm) grass, is native to tropical Asia from India to Sri
Lanka, and the Pacific Islands. It is naturalized on all of the main
Hawaiian Islands except Kahoolawe in lowland mesic forest, fields and
pastures, and along roadsides (O'Connor 1999, pp. 1531-1532). This
species rapidly spreads through runners and prolific seeding.
Drymaria cordata (chickweed) is a straggling herb
naturalized in shaded moist areas on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Lanai,
and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 505; Wagner et al. 2012, p.
26). This species is known to invade plantation crops such as tea and
coffee, as well as pastures, lawns, gardens, riverbanks, ditches, and
sandbars in rivers, displacing or preventing the establishment of
native plants in lowland wet and montane wet habitats (PIER 2010).
Ehrharta stipoides (meadow ricegrass), a grass native to
Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines, is naturalized on all the
main Hawaiian Islands except Lanai (O'Connor 1999, p. 1536; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 93). This species creates thick mats and its bristled
seeds are easily dispersed, preventing the establishment of native
plants in lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane wet, montane mesic, dry
cliff, and wet cliff habitats (U.S. Army Garrison 2006, p. 2-1-20;
O'Connor 1999, p. 1536).
Epilobium billardierianum ssp. cinereum (willow herb), a
(native to Australia, New Zealand, and Chatham Islands) and E. ciliatum
(native to North America, Japan, Asia, Mexico, and South America) are
perennial herbs naturalized in open forest and disturbed grassland, and
especially on open lava, pastures, and along roadsides on Kauai, Oahu,
Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 995; Wagner et al.
2012, p. 56). These species are dominant components of subalpine areas
on Maui and in wet forest on Hawaii Island, Maui, and Kauai, growing to
5 ft (2 m) in height, and outcompeting native plant species (Anderson
et al. 1992, p. 328). Seeds are wind-dispersed; rapid germination and
spread are not effectively controlled by herbicides (Oregon State,
2015, in litt.). These species are self-compatible and also can
reproduce from leafy rosettes from the stem base (Wagner et al. 1999,
p. 995; New England Wildflower Society, in litt.). Epilobium spp.
invade montane mesic, montane wet, montane dry, and subalpine forest on
Maui, Kauai, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 995; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 56).
Erechtites valerianifolia (fireweed) is a tall (8 ft, 2.5
m), widely distributed annual herb that produces thousands of wind-
dispersed seeds, and outcompetes native plants (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
314). Native to Mexico and South America, this species is naturalized
in disturbed lowland wet, montane wet, and wet cliff habitats on all of
the main islands except Niihau (Wagner et al. 2012, p. 11).
Erigeron karvinskianus (daisy fleabane), an annual or
perennial herb native to Central and South America and the Neotropics,
reproduces and spreads rapidly to form dense mats by stem layering and
regrowth from broken roots. This species crowds out and displaces
native ground-level plants (Weeds of Blue Mountains Bushland 2006), and
occurs in lowland to montane, mesic to wet habitats on Kauai, Oahu,
Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 315; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 12).
Eucalyptus spp. are tall trees or shrubs, and almost all
of the more than 600 species are native to Australia (Chippendale 1999,
pp. 948-959). In an attempt to protect Hawaii's watersheds in the early
20th century, over 90 Eucalyptus species and thousands of individuals
were planted by Hawaii State foresters on all the main islands except
Niihau and Kahoolawe (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 51; Chippendale 1999,
p. 949; Wagner et al. 2012, pp. 53-54). Approximately 30 species are
reported to be spreading beyond the forestry plantings. Three species
species in particular, Eucalyptus grandis (flooded gum), E. paniculata
(gray ironbark), and E. saligna (Sydney blue gum), were the principal
species used in reforestation efforts and greatly threaten native
habitat in Hawaii (Chippendale 1999, p. 958). Eucalyptus are quick-
growing, reach up to 180 ft (55 m) in height, reproduce from wind-
dispersed seeds, thereby outcompeting and replacing native forest
species in lowland wet and montane wet habitats (PIER 2011). According
to the HWRA for Eucalyptus, these species have a high risk of
invasiveness or a high risk of becoming a pest species (PIER 2011).
Falcataria moluccana (albizia), a tree up to 130 ft (40 m)
tall, is native to the Moluccas, New Guinea, New Britain, and the
Solomon Islands. This species was widely planted in Hawaii for
reforestation and is naturalized in lowland mesic to lowland wet areas
on all the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Geesink
et al. 1999, p. 690; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 41). Its rapid growth habit
enables it to outcompete and shade out native trees, and its high-
nitrogen leaf litter alters nutrient dynamics in the soil, allowing
nonnative plant species to flourish (GISD 2011, in litt.). The roots
are shallow and the wood is brittle, and falling branches are a hazard
to humans, animals, and other vegetation (State of Hawaii 2013, in
litt. (S.C.R. No. 74)).
Ficus microcarpa (Chinese banyan) is a very large,
spreading tree native to Ceylon, India, China, Ryuku Islands,
Australia, and New Caledonia, and is naturalized on Midway Atoll and
all the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et
al. 1999, pp. 924-926; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 52). This epiphytic
species has large branches with numerous aerial roots that form
columnar stems, eventually strangling its host, and can shade out
native plants with its broad canopy. Seeds are spread by birds (Motooka
et al. 2003, in litt.). This species occurs in lowland mesic habitat in
Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 924-926).
Fraxinus uhdei (tropical ash) is a tree to 80 ft (24 m)
tall, native to central and southern Mexico. In Hawaii, between 1924
and 1960, over 700,000 trees were planted by State foresters on all the
main islands (except Kahoolawe and Niihau) (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
991). Tropical ash is now naturalized in lowland mesic and montane
mesic habitat, and is currently considered a serious threat to the
mesic native Acacia-Metrosideros (koa-ohia) forest at Waikamoi on east
Maui (TNCH 2006, p. A5). This species reproduces by wind-dispersed seed
and spreads rapidly along watercourses and forms dense, monotypic
stands, crowding out and replacing native plants (Holt 1992, pp. 525-
535).
Grevillea robusta (silk oak) is a large (100 ft, 30 m)
evergreen tree native to Australia (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1086; PIER
2013). Over two million trees were planted in Hawaii between 1919 and
1959, in an effort to reduce erosion and to provide timber (Motooka

[[Page 58876]]

et al. 2003, in litt.). This species is an aggressive, drought-tolerant
tree, with the ability to establish in little to no soil, and forms
dense, monotypic stands (Santos et al. 1992, p. 342). The leaves
produce an allelopathic substance that inhibits the establishment of
other plants (Smith 1985, p. 191). This species occurs in lowland to
montane, dry to mesic forest and open areas on all the main Hawaiian
Islands except Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1086; Wagner et al.
2012, p. 61).
Hedychium coronarium (white ginger) is an herbaceous
perennial up to 7 ft (2 m) tall, native to southwestern China and the
Himalayas (Nagata 1999, p. 1622). White ginger is naturalized in
lowland mesic forest on Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii Island
(Nagata 1999, p. 1622). This species is shade tolerant but can grow in
full sun (Csurhes and Hannan-Jones 2008, p. 7). Similar to H.
gardnerianum, the creeping growth habit of H. coronarium overwhelms
native plants, and is difficult to control due to new growth from
rhizomes (GISD 2011).
Hedychium gardnerianum (kahili ginger) is native to India
(Nagata 1999, p. 1623). This showy ginger was introduced to Hawaii for
ornamental purposes, and was first collected outside of cultivation in
1954 at Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, and is now naturalized in
lowland wet and montane wet areas on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Lanai, and
Hawaii Island (Nagata 1999, p. 1623; Wester 1992, pp. 99-154; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 102). Kahili ginger grows over 3 ft (1 m) tall in open
light environments; however, it will readily grow in full shade beneath
forest canopy (Smith 1985, pp. 191-192). It forms vast, dense colonies,
displacing other plant species, and reproduces by rhizomes. The
conspicuous fleshy red seeds are dispersed by fruit-eating birds.
Studies show that ginger reduces the amount of nitrogen in the native
Metrosideros forest canopy in Hawaii (Asner and Vitousek 2005, in
litt.). This species may also block stream edges, altering water flow
(GISD 2007).
Heliocarpus popayanensis (moho) is a nearly 100-ft (30-m)
tall tree native to Mexico and Argentina. This species was planted
extensively in Hawaii by foresters beginning in 1941, and has since
escaped into lowland wet forest and cliffs on Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, and
Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1292; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 72).
The seeds are wind-dispersed, and this species is becoming a dominant
feature is some forest areas on Oahu (Smith 1998). It grows rapidly,
and spreads readily in disturbed forest where it can outcompete native
vegetation (Motooka et al. 2003, in litt.).
Heterotheca grandiflora (telegraph weed) is an annual or
biennial herb native to California and Mexico and now common from
lowland to subalpine habitats of all the main Hawaiian Islands except
Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 326; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 13). This
species is an opportunistic colonized that grows quickly, forms dense
stands, and has been observed to inhibit recruitment of native plants
in montane dry areas (Csurhes 2009, p. 2; PIER 2011).
Holcus lanatus (common velvetgrass), native to Europe, is
naturalized in Hawaii from montane to subalpine habitat, and occurs on
all the main islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (O'Connor 1999, p.
1551; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 95). It is an aggressive plant, growing
rapidly from basal shoots or its prolific seed, and can become a
dominant element of the vegetation if not controlled (Smith 1985, p.
192). Allelopathy may also play a role in the dominance of this species
over other grasses (Remison and Snaydon in Pitcher and Russo 2005, p.
2).
Hypochoeris radicata (hairy cat's ear) is a perennial herb
up to 2 ft (0.6 m) tall, native to Eurasia. In Hawaii, it is
naturalized in montane wet to dry cliff and subalpine sites on all the
main islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 327; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 13).
This species has a deep, succulent taproot favored by feral pigs, which
dig up large areas searching for the roots (Smith 1985, p. 192). Seeds
are produced in large numbers and dispersed by wind. It regenerates
rapidly from the crown of the taproot after fire (Smith 1985, p. 192).
These attributes contribute to its ability to outcompete native plants.
Juncus effusus (Japanese mat rush) is a perennial herb
widely distributed in temperate regions and naturalized in Hawaii in
montane ponds, streams, and open boggy sites on Oahu, Molokai, Maui,
and Hawaii Island (Coffey 1999, p. 1453; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 84). It
was brought to Hawaii as a source of matting material, but grew too
slowly to be of commercial value (Coffey 1999, p. 1453). This plant
spreads by seeds and rhizomes, and forms dense mats that crowd out
native plants (U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research
Division-National Genetic Resources Program (USDA-ARS-NGRP) 2011).
Juncus ensifolius (dagger-leaved rush), a perennial herb
native to the western United States, is naturalized in Hawaii and
occurs in standing water of marshy montane wet areas on Maui and Hawaii
Island (Coffey 1999, p. 1453; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 84). This weedy
colonizer can tolerate environmental stress and outcompete native
species (Pojar and MacKinnon 1994, in litt.).
Juncus planifolius (bog rush), a perennial herb native to
South America, New Zealand, and Australia, is naturalized on Kauai,
Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island, in moist, open,
disturbed margins of lowland and montane wet forests and in bogs
(Coffey 1999, pp. 1453-1454; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 84). This species
forms dense mats and displaces native plants by preventing
establishment of native seedlings (Medeiros et al. 1991, pp. 22-23).
Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), a perennial herb, is widely
established in many tropical and subtropical areas. In Hawaii, it was
naturalized prior to 1871, and is abundant in low-elevation coastal,
dry, and mesic areas on all the main islands except Niihau and
Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 568). It can reproduce by
vegetatively at indents along the leaf margin, usually after the leaf
has broken off the plant and is lying on the ground, from which a new
plant can take root (Motooka et al. 2003, in litt.). This species forms
dense stands that prevent reproduction of native plants (Motooka et al.
2003, in litt.; Randall 2007-Global Compendium of Weeds Database).
Lantana camara (lantana), a malodorous, branched shrub up
to 6 ft (3 m) tall, was brought to Hawaii as an ornamental plant and is
now naturalized on Midway Atoll and all the main Hawaiian Islands. This
species forms dense stands that prevent establishment of native plants
(Davis et al. 1992, p. 412; Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1320; Motooka et al.
2003, in litt.). Its berries are attractive to birds, which spread it
to new areas (Davis et al. 1992, p. 412). This species occurs in almost
all habitat types, from coastal, dry to mesic, lowland to montane
forest and shrubland.
Lapsana communis (nipplewort) is an annual herb (to 5 ft,
1.5 m) native to Eurasia, and is naturalized in montane wet forest, dry
cliff, and alpine habitat (3,200 m) on Maui and Hawaii Island (Wagner
et al. 1999, p. 331). It is identified as an agricultural weed and an
invasive species in Hawaii (USDA-NRCS 2011).
Leonotis nepetifolia (lion's ear) is a coarse, annual herb
(to 8 ft, 2.5 m), native to tropical Africa, and is naturalized on all
the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al.
1999, p. 803; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 46). It forms dense thickets that
displace native plants, especially in lowland dry habitat (Wagner et
al. 1999,

[[Page 58877]]

p. 803). According to the HWRA, this species has a high risk of
invasiveness or a high risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2006).
Leptospermum scoparium (tea tree) is a shrub or small tree
(7 to 16 ft (2 to 5 m)) native to New Zealand and Australia, and now
naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, and Lanai (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
963; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 55). It forms thickets that crowd out other
plants, and has allelopathic properties that prevent the growth of
native plants (Smith 1985, p. 193). This species occurs in disturbed
lowland to montane, mesic to wet forest habitat (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
963).
Leucaena leucocephala (koa haole), a shrub (30 ft (9 m))
native to the Neotropics, is now naturalized on all of the main
Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll. It is an aggressive, nitrogen-fixing
competitor that often becomes the dominant component of vegetation in
coastal and lowland dry areas (Geesink et al. 1999, pp. 679-680).
Lythrum maritimum (loosestrife), native to Peru, is a
many-branched shrub occurring in drier open areas and cliffs on all of
the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al.
1999, p. 868; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 49). It was collected by botanists
as early as 1794, suggesting it may be indigenous to the Hawaiian
Islands; however, L. maritimum is identified as an invasive species in
Hawaii (Stone et al. 1992, p. 104; USDA-NRCS 2011).
Melia azedarach (chinaberry) is a deciduous tree (to 65 ft
(20 m)) native to southwestern Asia that is invading forests, fence
lines, and disturbed areas on all of the main Hawaiian islands except
Kahoolawe (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 918; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 52). Its
fast growth and rapidly spreading thickets make it a significant pest
plant by shading out and displacing native vegetation (University of
Florida 2008). Feral pigs and fruit-eating birds further distribute the
seeds (Stone 1985, pp. 194-195). According to the HWRA, this species
has a high risk of invasiveness or a high risk of becoming a serious
pest (PIER 2008). This species occurs in dry, open habitats and cliffs
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 918).
Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass), native to Africa, is
naturalized on all the main Hawaiian islands except Niihau (O'Connor
1999, p. 1562). Melinis minutiflora is a spreading, perennial grass up
to 3 ft (1 m) tall that forms dense mats from root runners, crowding
out and preventing establishment of native plants. These mats can fuel
more intense fires and dense stands can contribute to recurrent fires,
with rapid expansion into adjacent burned areas (Cuddihy and Stone
1990, p. 89; O'Connor 1999, p. 1562; PIER 2013). This species occurs in
almost all habitats, from dry to wet, lowland to montane (O'Connor
1999, p. 1562).
Melinis repens (natal redtop), a perennial grass (1 to 3
ft (0.3 to 1 m)) native to Africa, is now naturalized on Midway Atoll
and all of the main Hawaiian islands (O'Connor 1999, p. 1588; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 99). This species invades disturbed, dry areas from
coastal regions to subalpine forest (O'Connor 1999, p. 1588). Dense
stands of natal redtop can contribute to recurrent fires (Desert Museum
2011).
Miconia calvescens (miconia or velvet tree), a tree up to
50 ft (15 m) tall, native to tropical America, first appeared on Oahu
and the island of Hawaii as an introduced garden plant and subsequently
escaped from cultivation (Almeda 1999, p. 903; Staples and Herbst 2005,
p. 397). This species is now also found on Kauai and Maui (Wagner and
Herbst 2003, p. 34; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 51). This species is
remarkable for its 2- to 3-ft (70 cm) long, dark purple leaves (Staples
and Herbst 2005, p. 397). It tolerates and reproduces in dense shade in
lowland wet habitats, eventually shading out all other plants to form a
monoculture. A single mature plant produces millions of seeds per year,
which are spread by birds, ungulates, and humans (Motooka et al. 2003,
in litt.). According to the HWRA assessment, miconia has a high risk of
invasiveness or a high risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2010).
This species, as well as all plants in the Melastoma family, are
included on the Hawaii State Noxious Weed list (HAR Title 4, Subtitle
6, Chapter 68).
Morella faya (firetree) is an evergreen shrub or small
tree (26 ft (8 m)) native to the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the
Azores, and naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 931; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 53). This species
forms monotypic stands, is a nitrogen-fixer, and alters the
successional ecosystems in areas that it invades by displacing native
vegetation through competition. It is a prolific fruit producer
(average of 400,000 fruits per tree per year), and these fruit are
spread by birds and feral pigs (Vitousek 1990, pp. 8-9; Wagner et al.
1999, p. 931; PIER 2008). This species is included in the Hawaii State
Noxious Weed List (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68), and is
reported from lowland to montane mesic and wet forest habitat (PIER
2008).
Neonotonia wightii (previously Glycine wightii; glycine),
a twining herb native to Central and South America, is naturalized on
all the main Hawaiian islands except Niihau (Geesink et al. 1999, p.
674; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 39). It was brought to Hawaii for
cultivation as a fodder plant. This species forms dense patches in
coastal and lowland dry areas, and covers and outcompetes other plants
(Geesink et al. 1999, p. 674; PIER 2010).
Nicotiana glauca (tree tobacco), a shrub or spindly tree,
is native to Argentina, and naturalized on all the main Hawaiian
islands except Kauai and Niihau (Symon 1999, pp. 1261-1263; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 71). A drought-resistant plant, it occurs in lowland,
open, arid, disturbed sites, and forms dense stands that crowd out
native species and prevent their regeneration (Symon 1999, pp. 1261-
1263; HBMP 2010; PIER 2011). According to the HWRA assessment, this
species has a high risk of invasiveness or a high risk of becoming a
serious pest (PIER 2011).
Omalanthus populifolius (Queensland poplar) is a large
shrub (20 ft (6 m)) native to Australia that is now naturalized on Maui
and Hawaii Island (Starr et al. 2003, in litt.). Based on information
from its native range, infestations in Hawaii could invade lowland
mesic forest. As a pioneer species, it is considered a potential pest
plant in South Africa (Starr et al. 2003, in litt.). Bird-dispersed
seeds germinate quickly when exposed to direct sunlight, but also have
a long dormancy period, providing a long-lived seed bank (Hornsby Shire
Council 2015, in litt.).
Oplismenus hirtellus (basketgrass) is a perennial grass
common through the tropics and now naturalized on all of the main
Hawaiian Islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (O'Connor 1999, p. 1565;
Wagner et al. 2012, pp. 96-97). This species forms a dense ground
cover, is sometimes climbing, and roots at the nodes, enabling its
rapid spread. It also has sticky seeds that attach to animals and birds
that results in its spread to new areas (O'Connor 1999, p. 1565;
Johnson 2005, in litt.). This species displaces native plants on forest
floors and trail sides, and occurs in lowland wet forest and cliffs
(Motooka et al. 2003, in litt.; O'Connor 1999, p. 1565).
Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass) is a perennial grass
native to the Neotropics, up to 2 ft (0.6 m) tall, and occurs in
lowland mesic and wet habitats, forming a dense ground cover. It occurs
on all the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (O'Connor
1999, pp. 1575-1576). Its small hairy seeds are easily transported on
humans and animals, or are carried

[[Page 58878]]

by the wind through native vegetation, where it establishes and
displaces native plants (University of Hawaii Botany Department 1998;
Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 83; Motooka et al. 2003, in litt.; PIER
2008).
Passiflora edulis (passion fruit), native to South
America, is a vigorous vine that can reach up to 50 ft (15 m) in
length. This species is widely cultivated for its fruit juice, and is
naturalized in lowland to montane mesic areas on all the main Hawaiian
islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Escobar 1999, p. 1010; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 57). Seeds are dispersed by feral pigs, and this vine
overgrows and smothers forest canopy. Rooting and trampling by feral
pigs in search of its fruit disrupts topsoil, causing erosion, and may
also destroy native plant seedlings (GISD 2012).
Passiflora foetida (love-in-a-mist) is a vine with
glandular hairs that give the plant a fetid odor. This species, native
to American tropics and subtropics, is naturalized on all the main
Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe, and grows over and covers vegetation
that prevents or delays establishment of native species (Escobar 1999,
p. 1011; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 57). Its fruit are eaten and spread by
birds (Escobar 1999, p. 1011; GISD 2006). This species occurs in
lowland dry and wet habitat (Escobar 1999, p. 1011).
Passiflora laurifolia (yellow granadilla, water lemon) is
a vine native to the West Indies, Guianas, and South America, where it
is widely cultivated (Escobar 1999, p. 1011). In Hawaii, it widely
scattered in mostly inaccessible lowland mesic to wet habitat, and can
grow over and smother vegetation (Escobar 1999, p. 1011; Starr et al.
2003, in litt.).
Passiflora suberosa (huehue haole), a vine, has many-
seeded purple fruits that are dispersed widely by birds. This species
is native to the American subtropics and the West Indies, and
naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Lanai, and Hawaii Island (Escobar
1999, p. 1014; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 57). This vine grows over and
smothers ground cover, shrubs, and small trees, sometimes reaching the
upper canopy layer of the forest (Smith 1985, pp. 191-192). Passiflora
suberosa occurs in lowland grassland, shrubland, open dry to wet
forest, and exposed cliff habitats (Escobar 1999, p. 1014).
Passiflora tarminiana (banana poka), a vine native to
South America, is widely cultivated for its fruit (Escobar 1999, pp.
1007-1014). First introduced to Hawaii in the 1920s, it is now a
serious pest in montane mesic and subalpine forest on Kauai, Maui, and
Hawaii Island, where it overgrows and smothers the forest canopy
(Escobar 1999, p. 1012; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 57). Seeds are readily
dispersed by humans, birds, and feral pigs (La Rosa 1992, pp. 281-282).
Fallen fruit encourage rooting and trampling by pigs, resulting in
destruction of native habitat (Diong 1982, pp. 157-158). Field releases
of biocontrol agents have not been successful to date (PIER 2010). This
species is included on the Hawaii State Noxious Weed list (HAR Title 4,
Subtitle 6, Chapter 68).
Persicaria punctata (previously Polygonum punctatum, water
smartweed), a rhizomatous perennial herb native to North America, South
America, and the West Indies, is a naturalized aquatic species found
along streambeds, running or standing water, in lowland and montane wet
habitat on Hawaii Island (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1064; Wagner et al.
2012, p. 59). This species is fast-growing and has long-lived seeds and
allelopathic properties (Gutsher 2007, in litt.). Loh and Tunison
(1998, p. 5) found that in pig-disturbed sites, P. punctata expanded
from 25 percent cover to 63 percent cover within 2 years. The
combination of these attributes allows this species to form dense
patches that inhibit establishment of native plants.
Pimenta dioica (allspice), native to Mexico, Central
America, Cuba, and Jamaica, is a tree (60 ft (18 m)) with sticky,
grape-like seeds that are spread by birds. Widely cultivated, this
species was introduced to Hawaii in 1885, and is naturalized on Kauai
and Maui (Staples and Herbst 2005, p. 427; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 53).
According to the HWRA, this species has a high risk of invasiveness or
a high risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2008). This tree forms
dense thickets and tolerates a wide range of soil types, and can
outcompete native plants, and is naturalized in lowland wet forest.
Pinus spp. (pine tree) are tall, evergreen trees or shrubs
native to all continents and to some oceanic islands, but are not
native to any of the Hawaiian Islands. Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis,
P. elliottii, P. patula, P. pinaster, P. radiata, and P. taeda are
naturalized on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (Little and Skolmen 1989, pp.
56-60; Oppenheimer 2003, pp. 18-19; PIER 2011; Wagner et al. 2012, p.
107). Pinus species were primarily planted by Hawaii State foresters
for reforestation and erosion control (Little and Skolmen 1989, pp. 56-
60; Oppenheimer 2003, pp. 18-19; PIER 2010). Pinus species are known to
establish readily; create dense stands that shade out native plants and
prevent regeneration; outcompete native plants for soil, water, and
nutrients; change soil chemistry; promote growth of weed seeds dropped
by perching birds; and be highly flammable (Oppenheimer 2010, in litt.;
PIER 2010). On east Maui, Pinus species are a threat to higher
elevation habitat because they invade pastures and native montane mesic
and subalpine shrublands, and have contributed to wildfires in the area
(Oppenheimer 2002, pp. 19-23; Oppenheimer 2010, in litt.).
Pluchea carolinensis (sourbush) is native to Mexico, the
West Indies, and South America (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 351; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 16). This 3 to 6 ft (1 to 2 m) tall, fast-growing shrub
forms thickets in lowland dry habitats and can tolerate saline
conditions. This species is widespread in Hawaii from coastal to
lowland areas and is adapted to a wide variety of soils and sites on
Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll, French Frigate Shoals, and all the main
islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 351). The seeds are wind-dispersed
(Francis 2004, in litt.). It quickly invades burned areas. These
adaptive characteristics increase its ability to outcompete native
plants. Some biological control agents have been introduced but have
not been effective (U.H. Botany Department, http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/cw_smith/plu_sym.htm).
Pluchea indica (Indian fleabane) is native to southern
Asia, and is naturalized on Midway Atoll, Laysan Island, and all the
main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 351; Wagner et al. 2012,
p. 16). These 6 ft (2 m) tall, fast-growing shrubs form thickets in dry
habitats and are widespread in Hawaii in coastal areas. The seeds are
wind-dispersed (Francis 2006). It quickly invades burned areas, and can
regenerate from basal shoots. These traits increase its competitive
abilities over native plants (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 351).
Prosopis pallida (kiawe, mesquite) is a tree up to 66 ft
(20 m) tall. Native to Peru, Columbia, and Ecuador, it was introduced
to Hawaii in 1828, and its seed pods were used as fodder for ranch
animals. This species is now a dominant component of the vegetation in
lowland, dry, disturbed sites, and it is well-adapted to dry habitats
on Midway Atoll and all the main Hawaiian Islands (Geesink et al. 1999,
pp. 692-693; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 41). It overshadows other
vegetation and has deep tap roots that significantly reduce available
water for native dryland plants. This species fixes nitrogen and can
outcompete native plants (Geesink et al. 1999, pp. 692-693; PIER 2011).
Prunella vulgaris (common selfheal) is a perennial herb in
the mint family.

[[Page 58879]]

This species, native to North and Central America, Europe, and Asia, is
naturalized in drier areas (including cliffs) on the islands of
Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 828-829). It can
root from stem nodes (PIER 2010). This species is reported as an
invasive species in Hawaii (USDA-NRCS 2011).
Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava) is a tall shrub or
tree (20 ft (6 m)) that forms dense stands in which few other plants
can grow, displacing native vegetation through competition. Native to
the Neotropics, P. cattleianum is naturalized on all the main Hawaiian
islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 971). The
fruit is eaten by pigs and birds that disperse the seeds throughout the
forest (Smith 1985, p. 200; Wagner et al. 1985, p. 24). This species
occurs in lowland to montane, mesic to wet habitats (Wagner et al.
1999, p. 971).
Psidium guajava (common guava) is a shrub or tree (32 ft
(10 m)) that forms dense stands, excluding native species. Native to
the Neotropics, P. guajava is naturalized on all the main Hawaiian
islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 972). Seeds
are spread by pigs and birds, and it also regenerates from underground
parts by suckering (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 972). These traits allow
this species to outcompete native vegetation in lowland to montane dry,
mesic, and wet habitats.
Pterolepis glomerata (NCN) is an herb or subshrub in the
Melastomataceae family. Native to South America, P. glomerata is
naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Hawaii Island (Almeda 1999, p.
912-913; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 52). This species has rapid growth,
early maturity to fruiting, a high germination rate, possible asexual
reproduction, the ability of fragments to root, and seed dispersal by
birds (University of Florida Herbarium 2006). These attributes allow it
to displace native vegetation through competition. All plants in the
Melastomataceae family are included in the Hawaii State Noxious Weed
List (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). It is a pest in lowland wet
habitat and along trail margins and cliffs (Almeda 1999, p. 912-913).
Ricinis communis (castor bean), a shrub or small tree
native to Africa, is naturalized in lowland mesic habitat on all the
main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 629). This fast-growing
species forms thickets, reaches 33 ft (10 m) in height, and shades and
crowds out native plants, preventing their regeneration. Its toxic
seeds are spread mainly by human activities (PIER 2012). According to
the HWRA assessment, this species has a high risk of invasiveness or a
high risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2012).
Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry) is a thorny
shrub with long, arching stems that reproduces both vegetatively and by
seed. Native to the continental United States, R. argutus is
naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et
al. 1999, p. 1107; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 62). It readily sprouts from
underground runners, and is quickly spread by frugivorous birds,
displacing native vegetation through competition (Tunison 1991, p. 2;
Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1107; U.S. Army 2006, pp. 2-1-21, 2-1-22). This
species is included in the Hawaii State Noxious Weed List (HAR Title 4,
Subtitle 6, Chapter 68). It occurs in almost all areas, from lowland to
subalpine, dry to wet habitats.
Rubus ellipticus (yellow Himalayan raspberry), native to
India, is a prickly, climbing shrub, now naturalized on Hawaii Island
in montane wet areas; an infestation on Oahu was removed (Wagner et al.
1999, pp. 1107-1108; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 62). It occurs in montane
wet areas in the Volcano and Laupahoehoe areas (Motooka et al. 2003, in
litt.). Its long, arching stems form impenetrable thickets, and cover
and smother smaller native plants. Seeds are dispersed by frugivorous
birds and other animals. The plants spread locally by underground
shoots that also allow it to regenerate rapidly after fire (PIER 2012).
Rubus rosifolius (thimbleberry) is an erect to trailing
shrub that forms dense thickets and outcompetes native plant species.
Native to India, southeastern Asia, the Philippines, and Indonesia, R.
rosifolius is naturalized on Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Wagner et
al. 1999, p. 1110). It readily reproduces from roots left in the
ground, and seeds are spread by birds and animals (GISD 2008; PIER
2008). This species occurs in lowland to montane mesic and wet habitats
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1110).
Sacciolepis indica (glenwood grass) is an annual grass
that invades disturbed and open areas, and prevents the establishment
of native plants. Native to the Paleotropics, S. indica is naturalized
on all the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (O'Connor
1999, p. 1589; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 99). The seeds are dispersed by
sticking to animal fur (Motooka et al. 2003, in litt.; PIER 2011). This
species occurs from lowland to montane elevations in open, wet areas
such as grasslands, ridge crests, openings in wet forest, and along
trails (O'Connor 1999, p. 1589).
Schefflera actinophylla (octopus tree) is a tree (50 ft
(15 m)) native to Australia and New Guinea, and now naturalized on all
the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Lowry II 1999,
p. 232; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 7). This species is shade-tolerant and
can spread into undisturbed forest, forming dense thickets in lowland
mesic and wet habitats (Lowry II 1999, p. 232). Schefflera actinophylla
grows epiphytically, strangling host trees, and its numerous seeds are
readily dispersed by birds (PIER 2008).
Schinus terebinthifolius (Christmas berry or Brazilian
pepper) is a shrub or tree up to 50 ft (15 m) tall that forms dense
thickets (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 198). Its red berries are attractive
to, and are spread by, birds (Smith 1989, p. 63). Schinus seedlings
grow very slowly and can survive in dense shade, exhibiting vigorous
growth when the canopy is opened after a disturbance (Brazilian Pepper
Task Force 1997). Because of these attributes, S. terebinthifolius is
able to displace native vegetation through competition (Wagner et al.
1999, p. 198). This species (native to Brazil) occurs in lowland to
montane, dry to wet habitats on Midway Atoll and all of the main
Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, p.
198).
Senecio madagascariensis (fireweed), native to Madagascar
and South Africa, is an annual or short-lived perennial herb with showy
yellow flowers, and is poisonous to grazing animals (PIER 2010). It is
naturalized in disturbed areas and in pastures, in lowland to montane,
dry to mesic areas on all the main Hawaiian islands except Niihau
(Wagner et al. 2012, p. 16). This species occurs in a wide range of
soils, and its seeds are spread by wind, birds, animals, and humans,
and can also be spread as a contaminant in agricultural products and
machinery. It spreads locally by rooting from nodes (PIER 2010).
According to the HWRA, for this species, there is a high risk of
invasiveness or a high risk of it becoming a pest species (PIER 2010).
Setaria palmifolia (palmgrass), native to tropical Asia,
was first collected on Hawaii Island in 1903, and is now also
naturalized on Oahu, Lanai, and Maui (O'Connor 1999, p. 1592; Wagner et
al. 2012, p. 100). A large-leafed, perennial grass, this species
reaches almost 7 ft (2 m) in height, and shades and crowds out native
vegetation. Palmgrass is resistant to fire and recovers quickly after
being burned (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 83). This

[[Page 58880]]

species occurs from lowland to montane elevations in mesic to wet
areas.
Setaria verticillata (bristly foxtail), a tufted annual
grass native to Europe, with culms up to 3 ft (1 m) tall, is
naturalized on Kure, Midway, and Pearl and Hermes atolls; French
Frigate Shoals; Nihoa; and all the main Hawaiian Islands (O'Connor
1999, p. 1593; HBMP 2010). The sticky seed heads are readily moved by
animals and human activity (PIER 2008). This species outcompetes native
plants in coastal and lowland dry areas.
Sphaeropteris cooperi (previously Cyathea cooperi;
Australian tree fern) is a large tree fern, 13 ft (4 m) tall, with
individual fronds extending over 13 ft (4 m) (Palmer 2003, pp. 243-
244). It is native to Australia and was introduced to Hawaii for use in
landscaping, and now naturalized on Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Lanai, and
Hawaii Island (Medeiros et al. 1992, p. 27; Wagner et al. 2012, p.
106). It can achieve high densities in lowland and montane Hawaiian
forests, growing over 1 ft (0.3 m) per year (Jones and Clemesha 1976,
p. 56), displacing native plant species. Understory disturbance by pigs
facilitates the establishment of this tree fern (Medeiros et al. 1992,
p. 30). It has been known to spread over 7 mi (12 km) through windblown
dispersal of spores from plant nurseries (Medeiros et al. 1992, p. 29).
This species has been documented in mesic and wet forest and in forest
openings in wet areas.
Stachytarpheta spp. are native to Cuba, Mexico, South
America, West Indies, and tropical Asia. There are four known species
naturalized in Hawaii: Stachytarpheta australis (on Kauai, Oahu, Maui,
Lanai, and Hawaii Island), S. cayennensis (on all the main islands
except Kahoolawe and Niihau), S. jamaicensis (on Midway Atoll, and all
the main islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau), and S. mutabilis (on
Kauai) (Wagner et al. 1999, pp. 1321-1324). These annual or perennial
herbs or subshrubs occur in coastal, lowland dry, and mesic areas, and
form dense stands (PIER 2011-2013, in litt.). Used intentionally as
ornamental plants, seeds are dispersed by vehicles, by movement of
soils from gardens, and by rainwater. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis is
declared a noxious weed in Australia. According to the HWRA assessment,
S. cayennensis and S. mutabilis are species with a high risk of
invasiveness or a high risk of becoming serious pests (PIER 2011-2013,
in litt.).
Stapelia gigantea (giant toad plant) is a succulent,
cactus-like plant native to tropical Africa and Mozambique, and is
naturalized on Oahu, Molokai, and Maui in lowland dry forest and open
areas (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 241; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 8). This
species outcompetes native plants for space and water.
Syzygium cumini (java plum), a 66 ft- (20 m-) tall tree
native to India, Ceylon, and Malesia, is widely cultivated and now
naturalized in Hawaii in lowland mesic and dry cliff habitat on all the
main islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 975).
It forms dense cover, excluding all other species, and prevents the
reestablishment of native forest plants. The large, black fruit is
dispersed by frugivorous birds and feral pigs (PIER 2008).
Syzygium jambos (rose apple), a 50 ft (15 m) tall tree,
brought to Hawaii from Rio de Janeiro in 1825, is naturalized on all
the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (Wagner et al.
1999, p. 975). Fruit are dispersed by birds, humans, and possibly feral
pigs. This tree is particularly detrimental to native ecosystems
because it does not need disturbance to become established, and can
germinate and thrive in shade, eventually overtopping and replacing
native canopy trees (U.S. Army Garrison 2006, p. 2-1-23). This species
occurs in lowland mesic to wet sites, primarily in valleys (Wagner et
al. 1999, p. 975).
Tecoma stans (yellow elder) is a shrub or small tree (32
ft (10 m)) that forms dense stands that inhibit regeneration of native
species. Native to Northern and Central America, Argentina, and the
West Indies, T. stans is naturalized on Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 389). Its seeds are wind-dispersed (PIER 2008).
This species occurs in lowland mesic to dry cliff habitat (Wagner et
al. 1999, p. 389).
Tibouchina herbacea (glorybush), an herb or shrub up to 3
ft (1 m) tall, is native to southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay. In
Hawaii, it is naturalized and abundant in lowland to montane wet forest
and cliffs on Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Almeda 1999, p.
915; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 52). This species forms dense thickets,
crowding out all other plants, and inhibiting regeneration of native
plants (Motooka et al. 2003, in litt.). All members of the
Melastomataceae family are included in the Hawaii State Noxious Weed
List (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter 68).
Toona ciliata (Australian red cedar) is a fast-growing,
almost 100 ft (30 m) tall tree, with wind-dispersed seeds and an open,
spreading crown that overtops and displaces native forest (Wagner et
al. 1999, p. 920; Koala Native Plants 2005). This species, native to
India, southeastern Asia, and Australia, occurs in lowland mesic to
cliff habitat on all the main Hawaiian islands except Kahoolawe and
Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 920; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 52).
Ulex europaeus (gorse), a woody legume up to 12 ft (4 m)
tall and covered with spines, is native to Western Europe and is now
naturalized in montane wet and mesic habitat on Molokai, Maui, and
Hawaii Island (Geesink 1999, pp. 715-716; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 43).
It is cultivated and a hedge and fodder plant, and was inadvertently
introduced to Hawaii before 1910, with the establishment of the wool
industry (Tulang 1992, pp. 577-583; Geesink 1999, pp. 715-716). Gorse
produces numerous seeds, which are widely spread by explosive opening
of the pods (Mallinson 2011, in litt.). It can rapidly form extensive,
dense and impenetrable infestations, and outcompetes native plants,
preventing their establishment. Dense patches can also pose a fire
hazard (Mallinson 2011, in litt.). Over 20,000 ac (8,100 ha) are
infested by gorse on the island of Hawaii, and over 15,000 ac (6,100
ha) are infested on Maui (Tulang 1992, pp. 577-583). Gorse is included
on the Hawaii State Noxious Weed List (HAR Title 4, Subtitle 6, Chapter
68).
Urochloa maxima (previously Panicum maximum, guinea
grass), native to Africa, is cultivated as an important forage grass
throughout the tropics and is naturalized on Midway (Sand Island) and
all the main Hawaiian Islands (Davidse 1999, p. 1569; Wagner et al.
2012, p. 97). This tall grass (10 ft (3 m)) produces profuse seeds that
are spread by wind, birds, and water. It is strongly allelopathic and
can form dense stands that exclude native species (PIER 2007). It
regenerates rapidly from underground rhizomes after a fire (PIER 2007).
This species has been documented in open, coastal areas, cliffs, and
open areas of lowland wet forest (PIER 2007).
Urochloa mutica (previously Brachiaria mutica, California
grass) is a sprawling perennial grass with culms up to 20 ft (6 m)
long. Native to Africa, is it now pantropical, and naturalized in
Hawaii on Midway Atoll and all the main islands except Kahoolawe and
Niihau (O'Connor 1999, p. 1504; PIER 2012; Wagner et al. 2012, p. 89).
This species forms dense floating mats in open water, and monotypic
stands along streams, ditches, and roadsides in wet habitat. It has
mild allelopathic activity, outcompetes native species, and prevents
their reestablishment (Chou and Young 1975 in PIER 2012). This grass is
also fire-adapted, and dead leaves provide a high fuel load.

[[Page 58881]]

According to the HWRA assessment, U. mutica has a high risk of
invasiveness or a high risk of becoming a serious pest (PIER 2012).
Verbesina encelioides (golden crown-beard) is a tap-
rooted, annual herb native to Mexico and the southwestern United States
(Wagner et al. 1999, p. 372). This plant has a number of traits that
allow it to outcompete native plants, including tolerance of a wide
range of growing conditions, rapid growth, allelopathic effects on
other plants, and high seed production and dispersal with high
germination rates. In addition, it is poisonous to livestock (Shluker
2002, pp. 3-4, 7-8). Verbesina has become a widespread and aggressive
weed on both Midway Atoll and Kure Atoll, where it interferes with
seabird nesting and inhibits native plant growth (Shluker 2002, pp. 3-
4, 8). This species has been documented in coastal habitat on Kure
Atoll, Midway Atoll, Pearl and Hermes, and all of the main Hawaiian
Islands except for Niihau (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 372; Wagner et al.
2012, p. 16).
Youngia japonica (oriental hawksbeard), an annual herb 3
ft (1 m) tall and native to southeastern Asia, is now a pantropical
weed (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 377). In Hawaii, this species occurs on
all the main islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau. Youngia japonica can
invade intact lowland and montane native wet forest, where it displaces
native species (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 377).
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Fire
Six of the 11 ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic,
montane mesic, montane dry, and subalpine) are at risk of destruction
and modification by fire. Fire is an increasing, human-exacerbated
threat to native species and ecosystems in Hawaii. The pre-settlement
fire regime in Hawaii was characterized by infrequent, low-severity
events, as few natural ignition sources existed (Cuddihy and Stone
1990, p. 91; Smith and Tunison 1992, pp. 395-397). It is believed that
prior to human colonization, fuel was sparse in wet plant communities
and only seasonally flammable in mesic and dry plant communities. The
only ignition sources were volcanism and lightning (Baker et al. 2009,
p. 43). Although Vogl (1969, in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 91) proposed
that naturally occurring fires may have been important in the
development of some of the original Hawaiian flora, Mueller-Dombois
(1981, in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 91) asserts that most natural
vegetation types of Hawaii would not carry fire before the introduction
of alien grasses. Smith and Tunison (in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 91)
state that native plant fuels typically have low flammability. Existing
fuel loads were often discontinuous, and rainfall in many areas on most
islands was moderate to high. Fires inadvertently or intentionally set
by the Polynesian settlers probably contributed to the initial decline
of native vegetation in the drier plains and foothills. These early
settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture that created open lowland
areas suitable for the opportunistic invasion and colonization of
nonnative, fire-adapted grasses (Kirch 1982, pp. 5-6, 8; Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, pp. 30-31). Beginning in the late 18th century, Europeans
and Americans introduced plants and animals that further degraded
native Hawaiian ecosystems. Ranching and the creation of pasturlands in
particular created highly fire-prone areas of nonnative grasses and
shrubs (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 67). Although fires were
infrequent in mountainous regions, extensive fires have recently
occurred in lowland dry and lowland mesic areas, leading to grass-fire
cycles that convert native dry forest and native wet forest to
nonnative grassland (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 77).
Because of the greater frequency, intensity, and duration of fires
that have resulted from the human alteration of landscapes and the
introduction of nonnative plants, especially grasses, fires are now
more destructive to native Hawaiian ecosystems (Brown and Smith 2000,
p. 172), and a single grass-fueled fire often kills most native trees
and shrubs in the area (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 74). Fire
destroys dormant seeds of these native species, as well as the
individual plants and animals themselves, even in steep, inaccessible
areas or near streams and ponds. Successive fires remove habitat for
native species by altering microclimate conditions, creating conditions
more favorable to nonnative plants. Nonnative grasses (e.g., Cenchrus
setaceus; fountain grass), many of which may be fire-adapted, produce a
high fuel load that allow fire to burn areas that would not otherwise
burn easily, regenerate quickly after fire, and establish rapidly in
burned areas (Fujioka and Fujii 1980 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 93;
D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, pp. 70, 73-74; Tunison et al. 2002, p.
122). Native woody plants may recover to some degree, but fire tips the
competitive balance toward nonnative species (National Park Service
1989 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 93). During a post-burn survey on
Hawaii Island, in an area of native Diospyros forest with undergrowth
of the nonnative grass Pennisetum setaceum [Cenchrus setaceus],
Takeuchi noted that ``no regeneration of native canopy is occurring
within the Puuwaawaa burn area'' (Takeuchi 1991, p. 2). Takeuchi also
stated that ``burn events served to accelerate a decline process
already in place, compressing into days a sequence which would
ordinarily have taken decades'' (Takeuchi 1991, p. 4), and concluded
that, in addition to increasing the number of fires, the nonnative
Pennisetum acted to suppress establishment of native plants after a
fire (Takeuchi 1991, p. 6).
For many decades, fires have impacted rare or endangered species
and their habitat on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (Gima 1998, in litt.;
Hamilton 2009, in litt.; Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Pacific
Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). These three islands experienced
approximately 1,290 brush fires between 1972 and 1999 that burned a
total of 64,250 ac (26,000 ha) (County of Maui 2009, ch. 3, p. 3;
Pacific Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). Between 2000 and 2003, the
annual number of wildfires on these islands jumped from 118 to 271;
several of these alone burned more than 5,000 ac (2,023 ha) (Pacific
Disaster Center 2011, in litt.). On Molokai, between 2003 and 2004,
three wildfires each burned 10,000 ac (4,050 ha) (Pacific Disaster
Center 2011, in litt.). From August through early September 2009, a
wildfire burned approximately 8,000 ac (3,237 ha), including 600 ac
(243 ha) of the remote Makakupaia section of the Molokai Forest
Reserve, a small portion of TNC's Kamakou Preserve, and encroached on
Onini Gulch, Kalamaula, and Kawela (Hamilton 2009, in litt.). Species
proposed for listing in this rule at risk of wildfire on Molokai
include the plants Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca villosa,
Ranunculus mauiensis, and Schiedea pubescens, Solanum nelsonii; the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly; and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus
anthracinus, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps.
Several wildfires have occurred on Lanai in the last decade. In
2006, a wildfire burned 600 ac (243 ha) between Manele Road and the
Palawai Basin, about 3 mi (4 km) south of Lanai City (The Maui News
2006, in litt.). In 2007, a brush fire at Mahana burned about 30 ac (12
ha), and in 2008, another 1,000 ac (405 ha) were burned by wildfire in
the Palawai Basin (The Maui News 2007, in litt.; KITV Honolulu 2008, in
litt.). Species proposed for listing in this

[[Page 58882]]

rule at risk of wildfire on Lanai include the plants Exocarpos
menziesii, Nothocestrum latifolium, and Portulaca villosa, the the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and yellow-faced bees Hylaeus
anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps.
On west Maui, wildfires burned more than 8,650 ac (3,501 ha)
between 2007 and 2010 (Honolulu Advertiser 2010, in litt.; Shimogawa
2010, in litt.). These fires encroached into the West Maui Forest
Reserve, on the ridges of Olowalu and Kealaloloa, habitat for several
endangered plants. On east Maui, in 2007, a fire consumed over 600 ac
(240 ha), increasing invasion of the area by nonnative Pinus spp.
(Pacific Disaster Center 2007, in litt.; The Maui News 2011, in litt.).
Species proposed for listing in this rule at risk of wildfire on west
and east Maui include the plants Festuca hawaiiensis, Nothocestrum
latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia stachyoides, Portulaca
villosa, Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea
pubescens and Solanum nelsonii; and the animals, the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly; and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H.
assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps.
Several recent fires on Oahu in the Waianae Mountain range have
impacted rare or endangered species. Between 2004 and 2005, wildfires
burned more than 360 ac (146 ha) in Honouliuli Preserve, home to more
than 90 rare and endangered plants and animals (TNC 2005, in litt.). In
2006, a fire at Kaena Point State Park burned 60 ac (24 ha), and
encroached on endangered plants in Makua Military Training Area. In
2007, there was a significant fire at Kaukonahua that crossed 12
gulches, eventually encompassing 5,655 ac (2,289 ha) and negatively
impacted eight endangered plant species and their habitat (Abutilon
sandwicense, Bonamia menziesii, Colubrina oppositifolia, Eugenia
koolauensis, Euphorbia haeleeleana, Hibiscus brackenridgei ssp.
mokuleianus, Nototrichium humile, and Schiedea hookeri) (U.S. Army
Garrison 2007, Appendices pp. 1-5). This fire provided ingress for
nonnative ungulates (cattle, goats, and pigs) into previously
undisturbed areas, and opened dense native vegetation to the invasive
grass Urochloa maxima (Panicum maximum, guinea grass), also used as a
food source by cattle and goats. The grass was observed to generate
blades over 2 feet in length only 2 weeks following the fire (U.S. Army
Garrison 2007, Appendices pp. 1-5). In 2009, two smaller fires burned
200 ac (81 ha) at Manini Pali (Kaena Point State Park) and almost 4 ac
(1.5 ha) at Makua Cave. Both of these fires burned into area designated
as critical habitat, although no individual plants were directly
affected (U.S. Army Natural Resource Program 2009, Appendix 2, 17 pp.).
Most recently, in 2014, two fires impacted native forest, one in the
Oahu Forest National Wildlife Refuge (350 ac, 140 ha), on the leeward
side of the Koolau Mountains (DLNR 2014, in litt.), and one above
Makakilo, in the Waianae Mountains, just below Honouliuli FR, burning
more than 1,000 ac (400 ha) (KHON 2014, in litt.). The Makakilo fire
took over two 2 weeks to contain. Species proposed for listing in this
rule at risk of wildfire on Oahu include the plants Joinvillea
ascendens ssp. ascendens, Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca villosa,
and Sicyos lanceoloideus, and the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus
anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. kuakea, H. longiceps, and H.
mana.
In 2012 on Kauai, a wildfire that was possibly started by an
unauthorized camping fire burned 40 ac (16 ha) in the Na Pali-Kona
Forest Reserve on Milolii Ridge, forcing closure of a hiking trail.
Fortunately, several threatened and endangered plants in the adjacent
Kula Natural Area Reserve were not impacted (KITV 2012, in litt.). The
same year, another wildfire burned over 650 ac (260 ha) on Hikimoe
Ridge, and threatened the Puu Ka Pele section of Waimea Canyon State
Park (Hawaii News Now 2012, in litt.; Star Advertiser 2012, in litt.).
Species proposed for listing in this rule at risk of wildfire on Kauai
include the plants Joinvillea. ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia
lorenciana, Ranunculus mauiensis, Santalum involutum, and Sicyos
lanceoloideus.
In the driest areas on the island of Hawaii, wildfires are
exacerbated by the uncontrolled growth of nonnative grasses such as
Cenchrus setaceus (Fire Science Brief 2009, in litt.). Since its
introduction to the island in 1917, this grass now covers more than 200
sq mi (500 sq km) of the leeward areas (Fire Science Brief 2009, in
litt.). In the past 50 years, on the leeward side of Hawaii Island,
three wildfires encompassed a total of 30,000 ac (12,140 ha) (Fire
Science Brief 2009, in litt.). These wildfires traveled great
distances, from 4 to 8 miles per hour (mph) (7 to 12 kilometers per
hour (kph)), burning 2.5 ac (1 ha) to 6 ac (2.5 ha) per minute (the
equivalent of 6 to 8 football fields per minute) (Burn Institute 2009,
p. 4). Between 2002 and 2003, three successive lava-ignited wildfires
in the east rift zone of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park affected native
forests in lowland dry, lowland mesic, and lowland wet ecosystems
(Joint Fire Science Program (JFSP) 2009, p. 3), cumulatively burning an
estimated 11,225 ac (4,543 ha) (Wildfire News, June 9, 2003; JFSP 2009,
p. 3). These fires destroyed over 95 percent of the canopy cover and
encroached upon forest areas that were previously thought to have low
susceptibility to wildfires. After the fires, nonnative ferns were
observed in higher elevation rainforest where they had not been
previously been seen, and were believed to inhibit the recovery of the
native Metrosideros polymorpha (ohia) trees (JFSP 2003, pp. 1-2).
Nonnative grasses invaded the burn area, increasing the risk of fire
encroaching into the surrounding native forest (Ainsworth 2011, in
litt.). Extreme drought conditions also contributed to the number and
intensity of wildfires on Hawaii Island (Armstrong and Media 2010, in
litt.; Loh 2010, in litt.). This ``extreme'' drought classification for
Hawaii was recently lifted to ``moderate;'' however, drier than average
conditions persist, and another extreme drought event may occur (NOAA
2015, in litt.). In addition, El Ni[ntilde]o conditions in the Pacific
(see ``Climate Change'' under Factor E, below), a half-century of
decline in annual rainfall, and intermittent dry spells have
contributed to the conditions favoring wildfires in all the main
Hawaiian Islands (Marcus 2010, in litt.). Species proposed for listing
in this rule at risk of wildfire on Hawaii Island include the plants
Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca hawaiiensis, Ochrosia haleakalae,
Phyllostegia stacyoides, Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus mauiensis,
Sanicula sandwicensis, Sicyos macrophyllus, and Solanum nelsonii, and
the yellow-faced bee Hylaeus anthracinus.
In summary, fire is a threat to 15 plant species (Exocarpos
menziesii, Festuca hawaiiensis, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens,
Labordia lorenciana, Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae,
Phyllostegia stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, Ranunculus mauiensis,
Sanicula sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos
lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus, and Solanum nelsonii), and eight animal
species (the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. kuakea,
H. longiceps, and H. mana) because these species or their habitat are
located in or near areas that were burned previously, or in areas
considered at risk of fire due to the cumulative and compounding
effects of

[[Page 58883]]

drought and the presence of highly flammable nonnative grasses.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Hurricanes
Ten of the 11 ecosystems (all except the anchialine pool ecosystem)
are at risk of habitat destruction and modification by hurricanes.
Hurricanes exacerbate the impacts from other threats such as habitat
modification and destruction by ungulates and competition with
nonnative plants. By destroying native vegetation, hurricanes open the
forest canopy, thus modifying the availability of light, and create
disturbed areas conducive to invasion by nonnative pest species (see
``Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,'' above) (Asner and
Goldstein 1997, p. 148; Harrington et al. 1997, pp. 539-540). In
addition, hurricanes adversely impact native Hawaiian stream habitat by
defoliating and toppling vegetation, thus loosening the surrounding
soil and increasing erosion. Along with catastrophic flooding, this
soil and vegetative debris can be washed into streambeds (by hurricane-
induced rain or subsequent rain storms), resulting in the scouring of
stream bottoms and channels (Polhemus 1993, 88 pp.). Because many
Hawaiian plant and animal species persist in low numbers and in
restricted ranges, natural disasters such as hurricanes can be
particularly devastating to the species (Mitchell et al. 2005, p. 4-3).
Hurricanes affecting Hawaii were only rarely reported from ships in
the area from the 1800s until 1949. Between 1950 and 1997, 22
hurricanes passed near or over the Hawaiian Islands, 5 of which caused
serious damage (Businger 1998, pp. 1-2). In November 1982, Hurricane
Iwa struck the Hawaiian Islands with wind gusts exceeding 100 (mph)
(160 kmh, 87 knots), causing extensive damage, especially on the
islands of Kauai, Niihau, and Oahu (Businger 1998, pp. 2, 6). Many
forest trees were destroyed (Perlman 1992, pp. 1-9), which opened the
canopy and facilitated the invasion of nonnative plants into native
forest (Kitayama and Mueller-Dombois 1995, p. 671). Hurricances
therefore have the potential to exacerbate the threat of competition
with nonnative plants, as described in ``Habitat Destruction and
Modification by Nonnative Plants,'' above. In September 1992, Hurricane
Iniki, a category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 130 mph
(209 kmh, 113 knots), passed directly over the island of Kauai and
close to the island of Oahu, causing significant damage to Kauai and
along Oahu's southwestern coast (Blake et al. 2007, pp. 20, 24).
Biologists documented damage to the habitat of six endangered plant
species on Kauai, and one plant on Oahu. Polhemus (1993, pp. 86-87)
documented the extirpation of the scarlet Kauai damselfly (Megalagrion
vagabundum, a species related to M. xanthomelas included in this
listing proposal), from the entire Hanakapiai Stream system on the
island of Kauai as a result of the impacts of Hurricane Iniki. Damage
by future hurricanes could further impact the remaining native-plant
dominated habitat areas that support rare plants and animals in native
ecosystems of Kauai, Oahu, and other Hawaiian Islands (Bellingham et
al. 2005, p. 681) (see ``Climate Change'' under Factor E, below).
In summary, hurricanes can exacerbate other habitat threats, such
as competition with nonnative plants, as well as result in direct
habitat destruction. This is a particular problem for the plant
Pritchardia bakeri, the band-rumped storm-petrel, the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced bees, (Hylaeus
anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H.
longiceps, and H. mana.)
Habitat Modification and Destruction Due to Landslides, Rockfalls,
Treefall, Flooding, Erosion, and Drought
Habitat destruction and modification by landslides, rockfalls,
treefall, flooding, erosion, and drought affect all 11 ecosystems
(singly or in combination). Landslides, rockfalls, treefall, flooding,
and erosion destabilize substrates, damage and destroy individual
plants, and alter hydrological patterns resulting in changes to native
plant and animal communities. In the open sea near Hawaii, rainfall
averages 25 to 30 in (630 to 760 mm) per year, yet the islands may
receive up to 15 times this amount in some places, caused by orographic
features (topography) (Wagner et al. 1999, adapted from Price (1983)
and Carlquist (1980), pp. 38-39). During storms, rain may fall at 3 in
(76 mm) per hour or more, and sometimes may reach nearly 40 in (1,000
mm) in 24 hours, resulting in destructive flash-flooding in streams and
narrow gulches (Wagner et al. 1999, adapted from Price (1983) and
Carlquist (1980), pp. 38-39). Due to the steep topography in many
mountainous areas on the Hawaiian Islands, disturbance caused by
introduced ungulates exacerbates erosion and increases the potential
for landslides, rockfalls, or flooding, which in turn damages or
destroys native plants and disturbs habitat of the band-rumped storm-
petrel (see Table 3). These events have the potential to eliminate one
or more isolated populations of a species that currently persists in
low numbers and a limited geographic range, resulting in reduced
redundancy and resilience of the species.
Landslides, rockfalls, treefall, flooding, and erosion are threats
to 20 plant species (Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia
kaalaana, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua
fluviatilis, K. haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare,
Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. helleri, P.
stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var.
molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Sanicula
sandwicensis, Schiedea pubescens, and Solanum nelsonii), and the band-
rumped storm-petrel, and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly.
Destabilization of cliff habitat could lead to additional landslides
and alteration of hydrological patterns, affecting the availability of
soil moisture. Landslides can also modify and destroy riparian and
stream habitat by direct physical damage, and create disturbed areas
leading to invasion by nonnative plants, as well as damaging or
destroying plants directly. Kadua haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana,
Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia brevidens, and P. helleri are known
only from a few individuals in single occurrences on cliffs or steep-
walled stream valleys, and one landslide could lead to extirpation of
the species by direct destruction. Monitoring data presented by the
PEPP program and botanical surveys suggest that flooding is a likely
threat to eight plant species Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae,
Deparia kaalaana, Labordia lorenciana, Phyllostegia stachyoides,
Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea pubescens and Solanum nelsonii as some
individuals occur on stream banks (Wood et al. 2007, p. 198; PEPP 2011,
pp. 162-164; Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. 20-21; PEPP 2013, p. 54;
PEPP 2014, pp. 95, 142). The naiad life stage of the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly could be impacted by flooding if most individuals
are carried out of suitable habitat or into areas occupied by nonnative
fish.
Drought has been reported to be a threat to nine plants (Deparia
kaalaana, Huperzia stemmermanniae, Phyllostegia stachyoides, Ranunculus
hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea pubescens,
Sicyos lanceoloideus, and Solanum nelsonii), the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced bees proposed for listing in this
rule

[[Page 58884]]

(Magnacca 2007b, pp. 181, 183; Polhemus 2008, p. 26; Chu et al. 2010,
pp. 4887, 4891, 4898; PEPP 2011, pp. 162-164; Fortini et al. 2013, p.
2; PEPP 2013, p. 177; PEPP 2014, pp. 140-142, 154-156, 162, 166-167).
Between 1860 and 2002, there were 49 periods of drought on Oahu; 30
periods of drought on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui; and at least 18 serious
or severe drought events on Hawaii Island (Giambelluca et al. 1991, pp.
3-4; Hawaii Commission on Water Resource Management (CWRM) 2009a and
2009b; HDLNR 2009, pp. 1-6; Hawaii Civil Defense 2011, pp. 14-1-14-12).
The most severe drought events over the past 15 years were associated
with the El Ni[ntilde]o phenomenon (Hawaii Civil Defense 2011, p. 14-
3). In 1998, the city of Hilo had the lowest January total rainfall
(0.014 in) ever observed for any month since records have been kept,
with average rainfall being almost 10 in for January (Hawaii Civil
Defense 2011, p. 14-3). Currently, the State remains under abnormally
dry to moderate drought conditions, with the onset of another El
Ni[ntilde]o event (U.S. Drought Monitor 2015, in litt.; National
Weather Service 2015, in litt.). Drought events dry up streams,
irrigation ditches, and reservoirs, and deplete groundwater supplies
(Hawaii CWRM 2009a and 2009b). Desiccation of these water sources
directly reduces or eliminates habitat suitable for the larval stage of
the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly to grow and mature, as well as
reduces habitat for the damselfly's adult stage to hunt prey. Drought
leads to increases in the number of forest and brush fires, leading to
a reduction of native plant cover over streams and ponds used by the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Giambelluca et al. 1991, p. v;
D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, pp. 77-79). Recent episodes of drought
have also driven axis deer farther into forested areas in search of
food, increasing their negative impacts on native vegetation from
herbivory, bark stripping, and trampling (see ``C. Disease or
Predation,'' below) (Waring 1996, in litt; Nishibayashi 2001, in
litt.). Drought events have the potential to eliminate one or more
isolated populations of a species that currently persists in low
numbers and a limited geographic range, resulting in reduced redundancy
and resilience of the species.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Water Extraction
Freshwater habitats on all the main Hawaiian Islands have been
severely altered and degraded because of past and present land and
water management practices, including agriculture; urban development;
and development of ground water, perched aquifer, and surface water
resources (Harris et al. 1993, p. 11; Meier et al. 1993, p. 181).
Extensive modification of lentic (standing water) habitat in the
Hawaiian Islands began about 1100 A.D. with a rapid increase in the
human population (Harris et al. 1993, p. 9; Kirch 1982, pp. 5-6).
Hawaiians cultivated Colocasia esculenta (kalo, taro) by creating
shallow, walled ponds, called loi, in marshes and riparian areas (Meier
et al. 1993, p. 181; Handy and Handy 1972, p. 58). By 1778, virtually
all valley bottoms with permanent stream flow and most basin marshes
were converted to taro cultivation (Handy and Handy 1972, pp. 396,
411). Hawaiians also modified wetlands by constructing fishponds, many
of which were primarily fresh water, fed by streams or springs (Meier
et al. 1993, p. 181). Despite this habitat modification by early
Hawaiians, many areas of extensive marshland remained intact and were
utilized by the native damselflies. Over time, however, many of the
wetlands formerly used for taro were drained and filled for dry-land
agriculture or development (Stone 1989, p. 129; Meier et al. 1993, pp.
181-182). In addition, marshes are slowly filled and converted to
meadow habitat due to increased sedimentation resulting from increased
storm water runoff from upslope development and blockage of downslope
drainage (Wilson Okamoto and Associates, Inc. 1993, p. 3-5). Presently
the most significant threat to the remaining natural ponds and marshes
in Hawaii, habitat for the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, is the
nonnative grass species Urochloa mutica (Brachiaria mutica, California
grass). This sprawling, perennial grass was first observed on Oahu in
1924, and now occurs on all the main Hawaiian islands (O'Connor 1999,
p. 1504). This species forms dense, monotypic stands that can
completely eliminate any open water by layering of its trailing stems
(Smith 1985, p. 186). Similar to the loss of wetlands in Hawaii, the
loss of streams has been significant and began with the early Hawaiians
who modified stream systems by diverting water to irrigate taro.
However, these Hawaiian-made diversions were closely regulated and were
not permitted to take more than half the stream flow, and were
typically used to flood taro loi only periodically (Handy and Handy
1972, pp. 58-59). The advent of sugarcane plantations in 1835 led to
more extensive stream diversions. These systems were typically designed
to tap water at upper elevation sources (above 980 ft (300 m)) by means
of concrete weirs. All or most of the stream flow was diverted into
fields or reservoirs (Takasaki et al. 1969, p. 65; Harris et al. 1993,
p. 10). By the 1930s, major water diversions had been developed on all
the main islands, and currently one-third of Hawaii's perennial streams
are diverted (Harris et al. 1993, p. 10). In addition to diverting
water for agriculture and domestic water supply, streams have been
diverted for use in producing hydroelectric power (Hawaii Stream
Assessment 1990, p. 96). Surface flow has also been diverted into
channels, and the perched aquifers which fed the streams have been
tapped by means of tunnels (Stearns and Vaksvik 1935, pp. 365, 378-434;
Stearns 1985, pp. 291, 301-303). Many of these aquifers are the sources
of springs, which contribute flow to streams. The draining of these
aquifers may cause springs to become dry (Stearns and Vaksvik 1935, pp.
380, 388). Most remaining streams that are not already diverted have
been, and continue to be, degraded by the activities of feral ungulates
and by nonnative plants. Channelization has not been restricted to
lower reaches, and it results in the loss of riparian vegetation,
increasing flow velocity, illumination, and water temperature (Parrish
et al. 1984, pp. 83-84). These conditions make the channels unsuitable
as habitat for the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly.
Habitat Destruction and Modification by Climate Change
Climate change may have impacts to the habitat of the 49 species.
Discussion of these impacts is included in our complete discussion of
climate change in the section ``E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors
Affecting Their Continued Existence,'' below.
Summary of Factor A
Destruction and modification of the habitat of each of the 49
species addressed in this proposed rule is occurring throughout the
entire range of each of the species. These impacts include the effects
of introduced ungulates, nonnative plants, fire, hurricanes,
landslides, rockfalls, treefall, flooding, erosion, drought, water
extraction, and the direct or cumulative effects of climate change.
The threat of habitat destruction and modification by agriculture
and urban development is an ongoing threat to four plant species
(Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium
sandwicensium var. molokaiense, and Solanum nelsonii); the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly; the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris hawaiana; and
the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus,

[[Page 58885]]

H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps, as the
conversion of terrestrial and aquatic habitats for urban use modifies
or permanently removes habitat, the host plants, and aquatic features
required by these species for their life-history needs.
The threat of habitat destruction and modification by ungulates is
ongoing as ungulates currently occur in all ecosystems on which these
species depend except the anchialine pool system. Introduced ungulates
pose a threat to the 37 of the 39 plants (all except for Cyanea
kauaulaensis and Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis), and 9 of the 10
animal species (all except for the anchialine pool shrimp), that are
proposed for listing in this rule that occur in these 10 ecosystems
(see Table 3) because ungulates: (1) Directly impact the species by
trampling and grazing; (2) increase soil disturbance and erosion; (3)
create open, disturbed areas conducive to nonnative plant invasion and
establishment by dispersing fruits and seeds, which results in
conversion of a native-dominated plant community to a nonnative-
dominated plant community; and (4) increase marsh and stream
disturbance and sedimentation, which affects the aquatic and anchialine
pool habitats.
Habitat destruction and modification by nonnative plants represents
an ongoing threat to 36 of the 39 plant species (all except for
Exocarpos menziesii, Huperzia stemmermanniae, and Joinvillea ascendens
ssp. ascendens), the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all seven
yellow-faced bee species addressed in this proposed rule because they:
(1) Adversely impact microhabitat by modifying the availability of
light; (2) alter soil-water regimes; (3) modify nutrient cycling
processes; (4) alter fire ecology, leading to incursions of fire-
tolerant nonnative plant species into native habitat; and (5)
outcompete, and possibly directly inhibit (through allelopathy) the
growth of, native plant species. Each of these threats can convert
native-dominated plant communities to nonnative plant communities
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Vitousek 1992, pp. 33-35). This
conversion has negative impacts on 44 of the 49 species addressed here.
The threat of habitat destruction and modification by fire to 15
plant species (Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca hawaiiensis, Joinvillea
ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, Nothocestrum latifolium,
Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia stachyoides, Portulaca villosa,
Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Santalum involutum,
Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus, and Solanum
nelsonii), the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all seven yellow-
faced bee species in this proposed rule is ongoing because fires occur
frequently, and damage and destroy native vegetation, including dormant
seeds, seedlings, and juvenile and adult plants, and host plants. Many
nonnative invasive plants, particularly fire-tolerant grasses, create
more destructive fires, invade burned areas, and can outcompete native
plants and inhibit their regeneration (D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, pp.
70, 73-74; Tunison et al. 2002, p. 122). Successive fires that burn
farther and farther into native habitat destroy the ecosystem and its
components upon which these 23 species depend.
Habitat destruction and modification by natural disasters such as
hurricanes represent a threat to the plant Pritchardia bakeri, the
band-rumped storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all
seven yellow-faced bee species addressed in this proposed rule.
Hurricanes open the forest canopy, modifying available light and
creating disturbed areas that are conducive to invasion by nonnative
plants (Asner and Goldstein 1997, p. 148; Harrington et al. 1997, pp.
346-347). The discussion under ``Habitat Destruction and Modification
by Nonnative Plants,'' above, provides additional information related
to canopy gaps, light availability, and the establishment of nonnative
plant species. In addition, hurricanes can alter and directly damage
streams and wetlands used by the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly
(Polhemus 1993, pp. 86-87). The impacts from hurricanes can be
particularly devastating to 10 species addressed in this proposed rule
because they persist in low numbers in restricted ranges, and are
therefore less resilient to such disturbances. A single destructive
hurricane holds the potential of driving to extinction the species that
persist as one or several small, isolated populations.
Landslides, rockfalls, treefall, flooding, and erosion adversely
impact 20 plant species (Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae,
Deparia kaalaana, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens,
Kadua fluviatilis, K. haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium
orbiculare, Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, P. helleri, P.
stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var.
molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Sanicula
sandwicensis, and Schiedea pubescens, and Solanum nelsonii), and the
band-rumped storm-petrel, and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, which
are proposed for listing in this rule, by destabilizing substrates,
damaging and killing individuals, and altering hydrological patterns.
These impacts result in habitat destruction or modification, and
changes to native plant and animal communities. Drought threatens five
nine plant species (Deparia kaalaana, Huperzia stemmermanniae,
Phyllostegia stachyoides, Ranunculus hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Sanicula
sandwicensis, Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, and Solanum
nelsonii), and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all seven
yellow-faced bee species addressed in this proposed rule, directly or
by desiccation of streams and ponds, and the host plants upon which all
seven yellow-faced bees depend.
Conversion of wetland and other aquatic habitat (i.e., water
extraction) for agriculture and urban development is an ongoing threat
that is expected to continue into the future, and affects the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly by removing habitat required for hunting
and breeding. Water extraction impacts the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly because it: (1) Reduces the amount and distribution of stream
habitat; (2) reduces stream flow and habitat; and (3) leads to an
increase in water temperature, negatively impacting the damselfly
naiads by causing physiological stress. Loss of stream-course habitat
affects Cyclosorus boydiae because this is the only habitat where this
riparian species occurs. Water extraction may affect the delicate
balance of the anchialine pool ecosystem, including salinity and biota,
affecting habitat of the anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris hawaiana.

B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or
Educational Purposes

We are not aware of any threats to 48 of the 49 species addressed
in this proposed rule that would be attributed to overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes.
Anchialine Pool Shrimp
The Service has become aware of companies and private collectors
using anchialine pool shrimp and related shrimp species for commercial
sales of self-contained aquariums (Ecosphere Associates 2015, in
litt.). One company located in Hawaii, Fuku Bonsai, has been using
Hawaiian anchialine pool species for the aquarium hobby market for many
years; however, they state they will soon be discontinuing sale of
``micro-lobsters'' (Fuku-Bonsai 2015, in

[[Page 58886]]

litt.). For commercial purposes, a Native Invertebrate Research and
Collecting permit issued by DLNR-Division of Forestry and Wildlife is
required to collect anchialine pool shrimp. All terrestrial and aquatic
invertebrates (including anchialine pool shrimp) are protected under
(1) the State of Hawaii Revised Statutes (1993) Chapter 195D-4-f
License; and (2) DLNR Chapter 124 Indigenous Wildlife, Endangered and
Threatened Wildlife, and Introduced Wild Birds. Collection is
prohibited in State Natural Area Reserves (NARs) but not in State Parks
or City and County property where some anchialine pools occur.
Overcollection by the aquarium hobby market is a potential threat to
the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris hawaiana. Collection is prohibited
in the Ahihi-Kinau (Maui) and Manuka (Hawaii Island) NARs, but is not
expressly prohibited at Lua O Palahemo (Hawaii Island). There is no
regulatory protection of these shrimp at the remaining five anchialine
pools outside of Manuka NAR that are known to contain P. hawaiana. We
consider overcollection of this anchialine pool shrimp, P. hawaiana, to
be an ongoing threat, because it can occur at any time.

C. Disease or Predation

Disease
We are not aware of any threats to the 49 species addressed in this
proposed rule that would be attributable to disease.
Predation
Hawaii's plants and animals evolved in nearly complete isolation
from continental influence. Successful, natural colonization of these
remote volcanic islands is infrequent, and many organisms never
succeeded in establishing populations. As an example, Hawaii lacks any
native ants or conifers, has very few families of birds, and has only
had two species of native land mammal, both insectivorous bats (Loope
1998, p. 748, Ziegler 2002, pp. 244-245). In the absence of grazing or
browsing mammals, plants that became established did not need
mechanical or chemical defenses against mammalian herbivory such as
thorns, prickles, and toxins. As the evolutionary pressure to either
produce or maintain such defenses was lacking, Hawaiian plants either
lost or never developed these adaptations (Carlquist 1980, p. 173).
Likewise, native Hawaiian birds and insects experienced no evolutionary
pressure to develop antipredator mechanisms against mammals or
invertebrates that were not historically present on the islands. The
native flora and fauna are thus particularly vulnerable to the impacts
of introduced nonnative species, as discussed below.
Introduced Ungulates
In addition to the habitat impacts discussed above (see ``Habitat
Destruction and Modification by Introduced Ungulates,'' under Factor
A), grazing and browsing by introduced ungulates are a threat to the
following 26 plant species in this proposal (see Table 3): Asplenium
diellaciniatum (black-tailed deer); Calamagrostis expansa (pigs),
Cyclosorus boydiae (pigs), Exocarpos menziesii (goats, sheep, mouflon),
Festuca hawaiiensis (goats, sheep), Gardenia remyi (pigs, goats, deer),
Huperzia stemmermanniae (cattle), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens
(pigs, goats, deer), Kadua fluviatilis (pigs, goats), Labordia
lorenciana (goats), Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis (pigs), Myrsine
fosbergii (pigs, goats), Nothocestrum latifolium (pigs, goats, deer,
black-tailed deer, sheep, mouflon), Ochrosia haleakalae (cattle),
Phyllostegia brevidens (pigs, sheep), P. stachyoides (pigs, goats),
Portulaca villosa (deer, mouflon), Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var.
molokaiense (deer), Ranunculus hawaiensis (pigs, cattle, mouflon), R.
mauiensis (pigs, goats, deer, black-tailed deer, cattle), Sanicula
sandwicensis (goats), Santalum involutum (black-tailed deer), Schiedea
pubescens (deer, cattle), Sicyos lanceoloideus (goats), S. macrophyllus
(mouflon, cattle), and Solanum nelsonii (deer, cattle).
Feral Pigs
We have direct evidence of ungulate damage to some of the plant
species proposed for listing in this rule, but for many, due to their
remote locations or lack of study, ungulate damage is presumed based on
the known presence of these introduced ungulates in the areas where
these species occur and the results of studies involving similar
species or ecosystems conducted in Hawaii and elsewhere (Diong 1982, p.
160; Mueller-Dombois and Spatz, 1975, pp. 1-29; Hess 2008, 4 pp.;
Weller et al. 2011, p. 8). For example, in a study conducted by Diong
(1982, p. 160) on Maui, feral pigs were observed browsing on young
shoots, leaves, and fronds of a wide variety of plants, of which over
75 percent were endemic species. A stomach-content analysis in this
study showed that most of the pigs' food source consisted of the
endemic Cibotium (hapuu, tree fern). Pigs were observed to fell native
plants and remove the bark from standing plant of species in the genera
Cibotium, Clermontia, Coprosma, Hedyotis [Kadua], Psychotria, and
Scaevola, resulting in larger trees and shrubs dying after a few months
of repeated feeding (Diong 1982, p. 144). Beach (1997, pp. 3-4) found
that feral pigs in Texas spread disease and parasites, and their
rooting and wallowing behavior led to spoilage of watering holes and
loss of soil through leaching and erosion. Rooting activity by pigs
also decreased the survivability of some plant species through
disruption at root level of mature plants and seedlings (Beach 1997,
pp. 3-4; Anderson et al. 2007, in litt.). In Hawaii, pigs dig up forest
ground cover consisting of delicate and rare species of orchids, ferns,
mints, lobeliads, and other taxa, including their roots, tubers, and
rhizomes (Stone and Anderson 1988, p. 137). The following plants are
particularly at risk of herbivory by feral pigs: Calamagrostis expansa
on Maui and Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010); Cyclosorus boydiae on Oahu (HBMP
2010); Gardenia remyi on Hawaii Island (PEPP 2011, pp. 113-114; PEPP
2012, p. 102), west Maui (HBMP 2010), Molokai (HBMP 2010), and Kauai
(HBMP 2010); Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens on Hawaii Island (PEPP
2011, pp. 120-121; PEPP 2012 p. 113; HBMP 2010), Kauai (PEPP 2014, p.
109; HBMP 2010), Maui (HBMP 2010), Molokai (HBMP 2010), and Oahu (HBMP
2010); Kadua fluviatilis on Kauai (HBMP 2010) and Oahu (HBMP 2010);
Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis on Maui (Bily 2009, in litt.;
Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.); Myrsine fosbergii on Kauai (HBMP 2010);
Nothocestrum latifolium on Maui (PEPP 2011, p. 140; HBMP 2010) and
Molokai (HBMP 2010); Phyllostegia brevidens on Maui and Hawaii Island
(PEPP 2014, p. 36); P. stachyoides on Molokai (PEPP 2014, pp. 140-141);
Ranunculus hawaiensis on Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010); and R. mauiensis on
Kauai (PEPP 2011, p. 161; PEPP 2013, p. 177; PEPP 2014, p. 156; HBMP
2010), Maui (PEPP 2011, p. 144; PEPP 2013, p. 177-178; PEPP 2014, p.
155; HBMP 2010), and Molokai (HBMP 2010). Feral pigs occur in 10 of the
11 ecosystems (all except anchialine pool) discussed in this proposal;
the results of the studies described above suggest that foraging by
pigs can directly damage and destroy these plants through herbivory.
Feral pigs may also consume native host plants of the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. kuakea,
and H. mana.
Feral Goats
Feral goats are able to forage in extremely rugged terrain and are
instrumental in the decline of native

[[Page 58887]]

vegetation in many areas of the Hawaiian Islands (Cuddihy and Stone
1990, p. 64; Clarke and Cuddihy 1980, p. C-20; van Riper and van Riper
1982, pp. 34-35; Tomich 1986, pp. 153-156). Feral goats consume a
variety of plants for food and have been observed to browse on (but are
not limited to) native plant species in the following genera:
Argyroxiphium, Canavalia, Chamaesyce, Erythrina, Plantago, Schiedea,
and Stenogyne (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 64; Warren 2004, p. 462; Wood
2007, pers. comm.). A study conducted on the island of Hawaii
demonstrated that native Acacia koa seedlings are unable to survive due
to browsing and grazing by goats (Spatz and Mueller-Dombois 1973, p.
874). If goats remained in the area in high numbers, mature trees
eventually died and with them the root systems that supported suckers
and vegetative reproduction. When feral goats were excluded by fences
for 3 years, there was a positive height-growth response of A. koa
suckers (Spatz and Mueller-Dombois 1973, p. 873). Another study at
Puuwaawaa on Hawaii Island demonstrated that prior to management
actions in 1985, regeneration of endemic shrubs and trees in a goat-
grazed area was almost totally lacking, contributing to the invasion of
forest understory by exotic grasses and weeds. After the removal of
goats, A. koa and native Metrosideros seedlings were observed
germinating by the thousands (HDLNR 2002, p. 52). Based on these
studies, and other comparisons of fenced and unfenced areas, it is
clear that goats devastate native Hawaiian ecosystems (Loope et al.
1988, p. 277). Because feral goats occur in 10 of the 11 ecosystems
(all except anchialine pool) discussed in this proposal, the results of
the studies described above indicate that goats likely also alter these
ecosystems and directly damage or destroy native plants. Browsing or
grazing by feral goats poses a particular threat to the following plant
species proposed for listing in this rule: Exocarpos menziesii on
Hawaii Island (NTBG Herbarium Database 2014, in litt.), Festuca
hawaiiensis on Hawaii Island (USFWS Rare Plant database 2010, in
litt.), Gardenia remyi on Kauai (PEPP 2011, p. 114; PEPP 2013, p. 107;
Kishida 2011, in litt.), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens on Kauai
(PEPP 2010, p. 80), Kadua fluviatilis on Kauai (HBMP 2010), Labordia
lorenciana on Kauai (PEPP 2011, p. 124; PEPP 2013, p. 126), Myrsine
fosbergii on Kauai (HBMP 2010), Nothocestrum latifolium on Maui (HBMP
2010), Phyllostegia stachyoides on Molokai (HBMP 2010), Portulaca
villosa on Hawaii Island (PEPP 2012, p. 140), Ranunculus mauiensis on
Kauai and on Maui (PEPP 2011, p. 161; PEPP 2012, p. 144; PEPP 2013, pp.
177-178; PEPP 2014, p. 155-156; Kishida 2011, in litt.), Sanicula
sandwicensis on Maui (PEPP 2011, p. 163), and Sicyos lanceoloideus on
Kauai (PEPP 2012, p. 154; PEPP 2013, p. 189). In addition, feral goats
may also damage or destroy native host plants of the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H.
kuakea.
Axis Deer
Axis deer are known to consume a wide range of forage items
throughout their native range and in areas where they have been
introduced (Anderson 1999, p. 3). Although they prefer to graze on
grass, axis deer have been documented to eat over 75 species of plants,
including all plant parts (Anderson 1999, p. 3). They exhibit a high
degree of opportunism regarding their choice of forage, and consume
progressively less palatable plants until no edible vegetation remains
(Dinerstein 1987, in Anderson 1999, p. 5; Medeiros 2010, pers. comm.).
Axis deer on Maui follow a cycle of grazing and browsing in open
lowland grasslands during the rainy season (November through March) and
then migrating to the lava flows of montane mesic forest during the dry
summer months to graze and browse on many native plant species, for
example, Abutilon menziesii (kooloaula, listed endangered), Erythrina
sandwicensis (wiliwili), and Sida fallax (Medeiros 2010, pers. comm.).
During the El Ni[ntilde]o drought cycles from 1988 through 2001, Maui
experienced an 80 to 90 percent decline in native shrub species caused
by axis deer browsing on and girdling young saplings (Medeiros 2010,
pers. comm.). On Lanai, grazing by axis deer has been reported as a
major threat to the endangered Gardenia brighamii (nau), and Swedberg
and Walker (1978, in Anderson 2003, pp. 124-25) reported that the
native plants Osteomeles anthyllidifolia (uulei) and Leptecophylla
tameiameiae (pukiawe) comprised more than 30 percent of axis deer rumen
volume. During the driest summer months, axis deer are observed in
coastal areas in search of food (Medeiros 2010, pers. comm.). Because
axis deer occur in 10 of the 11 ecosystems on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui
(all except anchialine pool), the results from the studies above, in
addition to direct observations from field biologists, suggest that
axis deer can also alter these ecosystems and directly damage or
destroy native plants. Browsing or grazing by axis deer poses a
particular threat to the following plant species proposed for listing
in this rule: Gardenia remyi on Molokai (HBMP 2010), Huperzia
stemmermanniae on Maui (HBMP 2010), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens
on Maui (PEPP 2014, pp. 108-109), Nothocestrum latifolium on Lanai
(PEPP 2012, p. 129), Phyllostegia stachyoides on Molokai (HBMP 2010),
Portulaca villosa on Lanai (HBMP 2010), Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium
var. molokaiense on Molokai (Wood 2005, in litt.; Kallstrom 2008, in
litt.; MNTF 2010), Ranunculus mauiensis on Maui (PEPP 2013, p. 178;
PEPP 2014, pp. 154-155), Schiedea pubescens on Molokai and Lanai (Wood
2004, in litt.; Rowland 2006, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2001, in litt.),
and Solanum nelsonii on Molokai (PEPP 2012, p. 156; PEPP 2013, pp. 190-
191; PEPP 2014, p. 167). Axis deer may also damage or destroy habitat
of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly and native host plants of the
yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H.
hilaris, and H. longiceps.
Black-Tailed Deer
Black-tailed deer are extremely adaptable, and in their native
range (U.S. Pacific coast) inhabit every principal ecosystem including
open grasslands, agricultural land, shrubland, woodland, mountain
forests, semi-deserts, and high mountain ecosystems (NRCS 2005, in
litt.). Their home range size varies in the continental United States,
but has been estimated to from 1 to 4 sq mi (2.5 to 10 km) and
sometimes as large as 30 sq mi (78 sq km), with adults defending small
areas when caring for fawns (NRCS 2005, in litt.). We do not know their
home range size on Kauai; however, the island is only 562 sq mi (1,456
sq km) in size. Black-tailed deer are primarily browsers, but as they
have a smaller rumen compared to other browsers in relation to their
body size, they must select the most nutritious plants and parts of
plants (Mule Deer Foundation 2011, in litt.). Their diet consist of a
diversity of living, wilted, dry, or decaying vegetation, including
leaves, needles, succulent stems, fruits, nuts, shrubs, herbaceous
undergrowth, domestic crops, and grasses (NRCS 2005, in litt.). Black-
tailed deer consume native vegetation on the island of Kauai (van Riper
and van Riper 1982, pp. 42-43; Stone 1985, pp. 262-263; Tomich 1986,
pp. 132-134, Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 67). In the 1990s, it was
estimated there were about 350 animals in and near Waimea Canyon;
however, in 2013 the population was estimated to be 1,000 to 1,200
animals in public

[[Page 58888]]

hunting areas (not including private lands), and was expanding into the
southern and eastern sections of the island (Mule Deer Working Group
2013, in litt.). According to State records, black-tailed deer are
feeding largely on the introduced species strawberry guava (Psidium
cattleianum) and thimbleberry (Rubus rosifolius) as well as the native
species Alyxia stellata (maile), Dodonaea viscosa (aalii), Dianella
sandwicensis (ukiuki), Coprosma sp. (pilo), and Acacia koa (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, p. 67). Browsing by black-tailed deer poses a threat to the
Kauai plant species Asplenium diellaciniatum, Nothocestrum latifolium,
Ranunculus mauiensis, and Santalum involutum proposed for listing here.
Mouflon and Sheep
Mouflon, feral domestic sheep, and mouflon-sheep hybrids browse
native vegetation on Lanai and Hawaii Island. Domestic sheep have been
raised on Kauai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, and Hawaii, but today sheep farming
only occurs on Hawaii Island on Mauna Kea and Hualalai (Pratt and
Jacobi in Pratt et al. 2009, p. 151). Sheep browse (eating shoots,
leaves, flowers, and bark) on the native Sophora chrysophylla (mamane),
the primary food source of the endangered forest bird, the palila
(Loxioides bailleui) (Scowcroft and Sakai 1983, p. 495). Feral sheep
reductions were initiated in palila habitat; however, even after most
were removed, tree bark stripping continued and some mamane populations
did not recover (Pratt and Jacobi in Pratt et al. 2009, p. 151). On
Hawaii Island, vegetation browsing by mouflon led to the decline of the
largest population of the endangered Argyroxiphium kauense (kau
silversword, Mauna Loa silversword, or ahinahina), reducing it from a
``magnificent population of several thousand'' (Degener et al. 1976,
pp. 173-174) to fewer than 2,000 individuals in a period of 10 years
(unpublished data in Powell 1992, in litt.). Mamane is also preferred
browse for mouflon, and according to Scowcroft and Sakai (1983, p.
495), mouflon eat the shoots, leaves, flowers, and bark of this
species. Mouflon are also reported to strip bark from native koa trees
and to seek out the native plants Geranium cuneatum (hinahina),
Sanicula sandwicensis, and Silene hawaiiensis, as well as Lanai
occurrences of Gardenia brighamii (Benitez et al. 2008, p. 57; Mehrhoff
1993, p. 11). While mouflon were introduced to Lanai and Hawaii Island
as game mammals, a private game ranch on Maui has added mouflon to its
stock, and it is likely that over time some individuals may escape
(Hess 2010, pers. comm.; Kessler 2010, pers. comm.). Browsing and
grazing by mouflon, feral domestic sheep, and mouflon-sheep hybrids
poses a particular threat to the following plant species proposed for
listing in this rule: Exocarpos menziesii on Lanai and Hawaii Island
(Keitt and Island Conservation 2008, pp. 90, 92; NPS 2013, pp. i, 124);
Festuca hawaiiensis on Hawaii Island (Oppenheimer 2001, in litt.; HBMP
2007, in litt.); Nothocestrum latifolium on Lanai (PEPP 2012, p. 129);
Phyllostegia brevidens on Hawaii Island (PEPP 2014, p. 136); Portulaca
villosa on Lanai (HBMP 2010); Ranunculus hawaiensis on Hawaii Island
(HBMP 2010); and Sicyos macrophyllus on Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010). As
feral sheep and mouflon occur in all of the described ecosystems except
for the anchialine pool ecosystem, the data from studies, cited above,
suggest that herbivory by feral sheep and mouflon likely also pose a
threat to the yellow-faced bees on Lanai (Hylaeus anthracinus, H.
assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps), by eating their
host plants.
Feral Cattle
Grazing by cattle is considered one of the most important factors
in the destruction of Hawaiian forests (Baldwin and Fagerlund 1943, pp.
118-122). Feral cattle are currently found only on the islands of
Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii (Tomich 1986, pp. 140-144; de Sa et al. 2013,
29 pp.). Cattle consume tree seedlings and browse saplings (Cuddihy
1984, p. 16). In Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (Hawaii Island),
Cuddihy reported that there were twice as many native plant species as
nonnatives in areas that had been fenced to exclude cattle (Cuddihy
1984, pp. 16, 34). Loss of the native sandalwood forest on Lanai is
attributed to cattle (Skottsberg 1953 in Cuddihy 1984, p. 16). Browsing
and grazing by feral cattle poses a particular threat to the following
plant species proposed for listing: Huperzia stemmermanniae on Maui and
Hawaii Island (Medeiros et al. 1996, p. 96); Ochrosia haleakalae on
Maui (HBMP 2010); Phyllostegia brevidens on Hawaii Island (PEPP 2011,
p. 144); Ranunculus hawaiensis on Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010); R.
mauiensis on Maui and Hawaii Island (PEPP 2012, p. 144; PEPP 2013, p.
178; PEPP 2014, pp. 154-155; HBMP 2010); Schiedea pubescens on Maui
(Wood 2005, in litt.; HBMP 2010); Sicyos macrophyllus on Hawaii Island
(PEPP 2010, p. 111; HBMP 2010); and Solanum nelsonii on Molokai (Wood
1999, in litt.; HBMP 2010). As feral cattle occur in six of the
described ecosystems (lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane
wet, montane mesic, and subalpine) on Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island,
the results from the studies cited above, in addition to direct
observations from field biologists, suggest that grazing by feral
cattle can directly damage or destroy these plants.
Blackbuck
The blackbuck antelope (Antelope cervicapra) is a species from
India brought to a private game reserve on Molokai about 15 years ago
from an Indian zoo (Kessler 2010, pers. comm.). According to Kessler
(2010, pers. comm.), a few individuals escaped captivity and
established a wild population of unknown size on the low, dry plains of
western Molokai. Blackbuck primarily use grassland habitat for grazing.
In India, foraging consumption and nutrient digestibility are high in
the moist winter months and low in the dry summer months (Jhala 1997,
pp. 1348, 1351). Although most plant species are grazed intensely when
they are green, some are grazed only after they are dry (Jhala 1997,
pp. 1348, 1351). While the possible habitat effects from the blackbuck
antelope are unknown at this time, we consider this ungulate a
potential threat to native plant species, including six plants that are
known from dry areas on Molokai, and are proposed for listing in this
rule (Gardenia remyi, Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca villosa,
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense, Ranunculus mauiensis,
and Solanum nelsonii). The blackbuck antelope may potentially threaten
the yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and
H. longiceps proposed for listing in this rule by consuming their
native host plants on Molokai.
Other Introduced Vertebrates
Rats
Three species of introduced rats occur in the Hawaiian Islands.
Studies of Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) DNA suggest they first
appeared in the islands along with emigrants from the Marquesas Islands
(French Polynesia) in about 400 A.D., with a second introduction around
1100 A.D. (Ziegler 2002, p. 315). The black rat (R. rattus) and the
Norway rat (R. norvegicus) arrived in the islands more recently, as
stowaways on ships sometime in the late 19th century (Atkinson and
Atkinson 2000, p. 25). The Polynesian rat and the black rat are
primarily found in rural and remote areas of Hawaii, in dry to wet
habitats, while the Norway

[[Page 58889]]

rat is typically found in urban areas or agricultural fields (Tomich
1986, p. 41). The black rat is widely distributed throughout the main
Hawaiian Islands and can be found in a range of ecosystems and as high
as 9,000 ft (2,700 m), but it is most common at low- to mid-elevations
(Tomich 1986, pp. 38-40). Sugihara (1997, p. 194) found both the black
and Polynesian rats up to 7,000 ft (2,000 m) on Maui, but found the
Norway rat only at lower elevations. Rats are omnivorous and eat almost
any type of food (Nelson 2012, in litt.). Rats occur in seven of the
described ecosystems (coastal, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane wet,
montane mesic, montane dry, and wet cliff), and predation by rats
threatens 18 of the plants proposed for listing in this rule
(Calamagrostis expansa (Maui and Hawaii Island; HBMP 2010), Cyanea
kauaulaensis (Maui; PEPP 2012, pp. 71-72; PEPP 2014, p. 73), Gardenia
remyi (Kauai; NTBG 2004), Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens (Kauai,
Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island; PEPP 2014, p. 109), Kadua
haupuensis (Kauai; Lorence et al. 2010, p. 140), Labordia lorenciana
(Kauai; Wood et al. 2007, p. 198), Phyllostegia helleri (Kauai; HBMP
2010), P. stachyoides (Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island; PEPP 2012, p.
133; PEPP 2013, pp. 158-159; PEPP 2014, pp. 140-142), Pritchardia
bakeri (Oahu; Hodel 2012, pp. 42, 73), Ranunculus hawaiensis (Maui,
Hawaii Island; HBMP 2010), R. mauiensis (Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui,
and Hawaii Island; HBMP 2010), Sanicula sandwicensis (Maui and Hawaii
Island; PEPP 2012, p. 148), Santalum involutum (Kauai; Harbaugh et al.
2010, pp. 835-836), Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa (Molokai, Maui; HBMP
2010), S. pubescens (Molokai, Lanai, Maui; Wood 2005, in litt.; HBMP
2010), Sicyos macrophyllus (Maui and Hawaii Island; Pratt 2008, in
litt.), Solanum nelsonii (NWHI, Niihau, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii
Island; PEPP 2012, p. 156; PEPP 2014, p. 167), and Wikstroemia
skottsbergiana (Kauai; Mitchell et al. 2005, in litt.), and the band-
rumped storm-petrel (Lehua, Niihau, Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii Island;
Pyle and Pyle 2009, in litt.), proposed for listing in this rule.
Rat Impacts on Plants: Rats impact native plants by eating fleshy
fruits, seeds, flowers, stems, leaves, roots, and other plant parts
(Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, p. 23), and by stripping bark and cutting
small branches (twig cutting) in search of moisture and nutrients,
seriously affecting vigor and regeneration (Abe and Umeno 2011, pp. 27-
39; Nelson 2012, in litt.). Studies in New Zealand have demonstrated
that differential regeneration as a consequence of rat predation alters
species composition of forested areas (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 68-
69). Rats have caused declines or even the total elimination of island
plant species (Campbell and Atkinson 1999 in Atkinson and Atkinson
2000, p. 24). In the Hawaiian Islands, rats may consume as much at 90
percent of the seeds produced by some native plants, and in some cases
prevent regeneration of forest species completely (Cuddihy and Stone
1990, pp. 68-69). Hawaiian plants with fleshy fruit, such as Cyanea and
Pritchardia, are particularly susceptible to rat predation (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, pp. 67-69). Predation of seeds by rats poses an ongoing
threat to all the Hawaiian Pritchardia palms, including P. bakeri
proposed for listing in this rule, because rats are able to consume
every seed in a fruiting stalk, preventing successful reproduction
(Hodel 2012, pp. 42, 73). Fossil pollen records indicate that
Pritchardia palms were once among the dominant species of coastal,
lowland, and interior forests (Burney et al. 2001, pp. 630-631; Chapin
et al. 2007, p. 21); today, complete coverage by all age classes of
Pritchardia occurs only on small islets currently unoccupied by rats
(Athens 2009, p. 1498). As rats occur in seven of the described
ecosystems, the results from the studies cited above, in addition to
direct observations by field biologists, suggest that predation by rats
can directly damage or destroy native plants.
Rat Impacts on the Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel: Introduced predators
are the most serious threat facing the band-rumped storm-petrel. Rats
occur on all the main Hawaiian Islands, and populations are also high
on Lehua; however, attempts to control rats on Lehua are ongoing
(Parkes and Fisher 2011, 48 pp.). Ground-, crevice-, and burrow-nesting
seabirds, as well as their eggs and young, are highly susceptible to
predation by rats; storm-petrels are the most susceptible of seabirds
to rat predation and have experienced population level impacts and
extirpation as a result (Simons 1984, p. 1073; Jones et al. 2008, p.
20-21). Evidence from the islands of Hawaii and Maui show that the
Hawaiian petrel, which nests in some of the same areas as the band-
rumped storm-petrel, suffers huge losses to introduced predators
(Johnston 1992, in litt.; Hodges and Nagata 2001, pp. 308-310; Hu et
al. 2001, p. 234). The effects of introduced predators on the breeding
success of the band-rumped storm-petrel are probably similar to the
documented effects on the breeding success of Hawaiian petrels because
these birds are similarly vulnerable. Population modeling showed that
consistent predation of Hawaiian petrels, where reproductive success
was reduced to 35 percent and adult survival was 80 percent, could
drive a population to extinction in 20 to 30 years (Simons 1984, pp.
1071-1073). Rat bones were collected from a band-rumped storm-petrel
nest on a sheer cliff on Kauai, and two live rats were observed moving
along small rock ledges in the same area (Wood et al. 2002, p. 8),
demonstrating that even remote, and otherwise inaccessible nest sites
are not safe from these predators. Because rats are present in all
three ecosystems in which the band-rumped storm-petrel occurs (coastal,
dry cliff, and wet cliff), predation by rats could further decrease the
numbers and populations of the band-rumped storm-petrel, and we do not
anticipate a reduction of this threat in the near future.
Barn Owl Impacts on the Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel
Two species of owls, the native pueo (Asio flammeus sandwichensis)
and the introduced barn owl (Tyto alba), are known to prey on native
birds. Between 1996 and 1998, 10 percent of nest failures of the
endangered forest bird, the puaiohi (small Kauai thrush, Myadestes
palmeri), on Kauai were attributed to owls (Snetsinger et al. 1994, p.
47; Snetsinger et al. 2005, pp. 72, 79). In the Galapagos, the short-
eared owl (Asio flammeus galapagoensis), a close relative of the pueo,
is the primary predator of juvenile and adult band-rumped storm-
petrels, and took more storm-petrels than other seabirds in some
months. Predation by owls (Asio flammeus galapagoensis) was greatest
during the cold season and on non-breeders, which spend more time on
the ground prospecting for nesting sites (Harris 1969 in Slotterback
2002, in litt.). Some predation avoidance behavior by band-rumped
storm-petrels has been observed: Their nocturnal activity (feeding
chicks only at night) and burrow-nesting habitat limit predation by
gulls and frigatebirds, and non-reproductive birds decrease their
activity (measured by fewer birds in flight and fewer vocalizations)
around the period of the full moon to avoid predation (Bretagnolle 1990
in Slotterback 2002, in litt.); however, it is uncertain how effective
this behavior is against predation by owls.

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Cat Impacts on the Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel
Cats (Felis catus) were introduced to Hawaii in the early 1800s and
are present on all the main Hawaiian Islands (Tomich 1986, p. 101).
Cats are notorious for their predation on birds (Tomich 1986, p. 102;
Medina et al. 2011, pp. 3505-3507; Duffy and Capece 2012, pp. 176-177).
Native mammalian carnivores are absent from oceanic islands because of
their low dispersal ability, but once introduced, are significant
predators on seabird colonies and terrestrial birds that are not
adapted to predation by these animals (Nogales et al. 2013, p. 804;
Ziegler 2002, p. 243; Scott et al. 1986, p. 363; Ainley et al. 1997, p.
24; Hess and Banko 2006, in litt.). Cats may have contributed to the
extinction of the Hawaiian rail (Porzana sandwichensis) (Stone 1985 in
Stone and Scott 1985, p. 266). Although cats are more common at lower
elevations, there are populations in areas completely isolated from
human presence, including montane forests and alpine areas of Maui and
Hawaii Island (Lindsey et al. in Pratt et al. 2009, p. 277; Scott et
al. 1986, p. 363). Examination of the stomach contents of feral cats at
Hakalau Forest NWR (Hawaii Island) found native and introduced birds to
be the most common prey item (Banko et al. 2004, p. 162). Cats are
believed to prey on roosting or incubating adult band-rumped storm-
petrels and young, as evidenced by carcasses found in Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park depredated by cats (Hu, pers. comm. in Slotterback 2012,
in litt.; Hess et al. 2008, pp. 11, 14). Causes of predation are better
studied for the Hawaiian petrel, which is much larger in size but has
nesting characteristics similar to those of the band-rumped storm-
petrel. On Mauna Loa (Hawaii Island), feral cats were major predators
of Hawaiian petrels (Hu et al. 2001, p. 234), and on Haleakala (Maui)
almost half of the known mortalities of Hawaiian petrels between 1964
and 1996 were attributed to cats (Natividad Hodges and Nagata 2001, p.
312; Hu et al. 2001, p. 234). Population modeling of the Hawaiian
petrel indicated that the petrel population would be unable to
withstand any level of predation for long, and even with seemingly low
levels of predation, the petrel population would be reduced by half in
fewer than 30 years (Simon 1984, p. 1073). The band-rumped storm petrel
is small in size, nests in burrows and rock-crevices, lacks co-evolved
predator avoidance behavior, and has a lengthy incubation and fledgling
period, making this species highly vulnerable to predation by
introduced mammals. Because feral cats occur in all three ecosystems in
which the band-rumped storm petrel occurs, they are likely to be
significant predators of these birds.
Mongoose Impacts on the Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel
The small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) was introduced
to Hawaii in 1883 to control rodents in sugar cane plantations (Tomich
1986, pp. 95-96). This species quickly became widespread on Oahu,
Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island, from sea level to elevations as high
as 7,000 ft (2,130 m) (Tomich 1986, pp. 93-94). Mongooses have been
sighted, and two captured, on Kauai, but it is still uncertain if there
are established populations or how large populations might be (Kauai
Invasive Species Committee 2013, in litt.; The Garden Island 2012, in
litt.; Hess et al. in Pratt et al. 2009, p. 429). Mongooses are
omnivorous, are known to prey on Hawaiian birds and their eggs, and are
considered a likely factor in the decline of the endangered Hawaiian
goose (nene, Branta sandvicensis) (Tomich 1986, p. 97). They are known
or suspected predators on other Hawaiian birds including the Hawaiian
crow (alala, Corvus hawaiiensis), the Hawaiian duck (koloa, Anas
wyvilliana), the Hawaiian coot (alae keokeo, Fulica alai), the Hawaiian
stilt (aeo, Himantopus mexicanus knudseni), the Hawaiian gallinule
(ula, Gallinula chloropus sandvicensis), the Hawaiian petrel, and the
Newell's shearwater. Bird extinctions in other areas are attributed to
mongooses, the loss of the barred-wing rail (Nesoclopeus poecilopterus)
in Fiji, and the Jamaica petrel (Pterodroma caribbaea) (Hays and Conant
2007, p. 6). Birds extirpated from islands occupied by mongooses retain
their populations on islands known to be mongoose-free (Hays and Conant
2007, p. 7). In Hawaii, mongooses are found in habitat that would have
been unsuitable for it within its natural range, and they have no
predators and few communicable diseases or parasites. Because mongooses
occur in all three ecosystems in which the band-rumped storm-petrel
occurs, they are likely to be significant predators of the band-rumped
storm-petrel.
Nonnative Fish Impacts on the Orangeblack Hawaiian Damselfly
Predation by nonnative fishes on the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly
is a significant threat. Similar to the aquatic insects, Hawaii has a
depauperate freshwater fish fauna, with only five native species
comprised of gobies (Gobiidae) and sleepers (Eleotridae) that occur on
all the main islands (Devick 1991, p. 196). Information on these five
species indicates that the Hawaiian damselflies probably experienced
limited natural predation pressure from these native fishes (Kido 1997,
p. 493; Englund 1999, p. 236). Conversely, fish predation has been an
important factor in the evolution of behavior in damselfly naiads in
continental systems (Johnson 1991, p. 13). Some species of damselflies,
including the native Hawaiian species, are not adapted to coexist with
some fish species, and are found only in bodies of water without fish
(Henrikson 1988, pp. 179-180; McPeek 1990a, pp. 92-93). The naiads of
these species tend to occupy more exposed positions and engage in
conspicuous foraging behavior that makes them susceptible to predation
by fishes (Macan 1977, p. 47; McPeek 1990b, p. 1722). The introduction
of nonnative fishes has been implicated in the extirpation of a species
related to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the Pacific Hawaiian
damselfly (Megalagrion pacificum), from Oahu, Kauai, and Lanai, and
from many streams on the remaining islands where it occurs (Moore and
Gagne 1982, pp. 1-4). Over 70 species of fish have been introduced into
Hawaiian freshwater habitats (Devick 1991, p. 189; Englund and Eldredge
in Staples and Cowie 2001, p. 32; Englund 2004, in litt., p.27). The
impact of fish introductions prior to 1900 cannot be assessed because
this predates the initial collection of damselflies in Hawaii (Perkins
1913, p. clxxvi). In 1905, two species, the mosquito fish (Gambusia
affinis) and the sailfin molly (Poecilia latipinna), were introduced
for biological control of mosquitoes (Van Dine 1907, pp. 6-9). In 1922,
three additional species were established for mosquito control, the
green swordtail (Xiphophorus helleri), the moonfish (Xiphophorus
maculatus), and the guppy (Poecilia reticulata). By 1935, the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly was found only in waters without
introduced fishes (Williams 1936, p. 289; Zimmerman 1948b, p. 341;
Polhemus 1993, p. 591; Englund 1998, p. 235). Beginning about 1980, a
large number of new fish introductions began in Hawaii, originating
primarily from the aquarium fish trade (Devick 1991, p. 189). This
recent wave of fish introductions on Oahu corresponded with the drastic
decline and range reduction of other Hawaiian damselfly species: The
endangered oceanic Hawaiian damselfly (M. oceanicum), the endangered
crimson Hawaiian

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damselfly (M. leptodemas), and the endangered blackline Hawaiian
damselfly (M. nigrohamatum nigrolineatum). Currently, these damselflies
are found only in drainages or higher parts of stream systems where
nonnative fish are not yet established (Englund and Polhemus 1994, pp.
8-9; Englund 2004, in litt., p. 27). In summary, Hawaiian damselflies
evolved with few, if any, predatory fishes and exposed behavior of most
of the fully aquatic species, including the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly, makes them particularly vulnerable to predation by nonnative
fish.
Nonnative Fish Impacts on the Anchialine Pool Shrimp
In Hawaii, the introduction of nonnative fishes, including bait-
fish, into anchialine pools may have been a major contributor to the
decline of native shrimp. Predation by nonnative fishes is considered
the greatest threat to native shrimp within anchialine pool systems
(Bailey-Brock and Brock 1993, p. 354). These impacts are discussed
further in ``E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their
Continued Existence,'' below.
Introduced Invertebrates
Slugs
Herbivory by nonnative slugs is reported to adversely impact 8 of
the 39 plant species (Cyanea kauaulaensis (Maui); Deparia kaalaana
(Kauai, Maui, Hawaii Island), Labordia lorenciana (Kauai), Phyllostegia
brevidens (Maui), P. stachyoides (Molokai, Maui), Ranunculus mauiensis
(Maui), Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa (Maui), and S. pubescens (Maui);
see Table 3) proposed for listing in this rule, through mechanical
damage, destruction of plant parts, and mortality (Joe 2006, p. 10;
HBMP 2010; PEPP 2011, pp. 149, 170; PEPP 2012, pp. 71-72, 117-118, 133,
144-145, 153; PEPP 2013, pp. 54, 67, 91, 125-126, 158-159, 177-178,
185; Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014, p. 106; PEPP 2014, pp. 73, 112-
114, 136, 141-142, 154-156, 159, 162-163). Slugs are known to damage
individuals of Cyanea and Cyrtandra species in the wild (Wood 2001, in
litt.; Sailer and Kier 2002, in litt.; PEPP 2007, p. 38; PEPP 2008, pp.
23, 29, 52-53, 57). Information in the U.S. Army's 2005 ``Status Report
for the Makua Implementation Plan'' indicates that herbivory by slugs
can be a threat to all species of Cyanea, and can result in up to 80
percent seedling mortality (U.S. Army Garrison 2005, p. 3-51). Slug
damage has also been reported on other Hawaiian plants including
Argyroxiphium grayanum (greensword), Alsinidendron sp., Hibiscus sp.,
Schiedea kaalae (maolioli), Solanum sandwicense (popolo aiakeakua), and
Urera sp. (Gagne 1983, p. 190-191; Sailer 2006, pers. comm. in Joe
2006, pp. 28-34). Joe and Daehler (2008, p. 252) found that native
Hawaiian plants are more vulnerable to slug damage than nonnative
plants. In particular, they found that individuals of the endangered
plants Cyanea superba and Schiedea obovata had 50 percent higher
mortality when exposed to slugs as compared to individuals that were
within exclosures without slugs. As slugs are reported in 5 of the 11
ecosystems (lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane wet, montane mesic, and
wet cliff), on all the main Hawaiian Islands, the data from the studies
cited above, in addition to direct observations by field biologists,
suggest that slugs can directly damage or destroy native plants.
Backswimmers
Predation by nonnative backswimmers (Heteroptera: Notonectidae)
poses a threat to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. Backswimmers are
aquatic true bugs (Heteroptera) in the family Notonectidae, so called
because they swim upside down. Backswimmers are voracious predators and
frequently feed on prey much larger than themselves, such as tadpoles,
small fish, and other aquatic invertebrates including damselfly naiads
(Borror et al. 1989, p. 296; Zalom 1978, p. 617). Backswimmers (several
species) were introduced in recent times. Buenoa pallipes (NCN) has
been recorded from Hawaii Island, Oahu, Maui, and Kauai (Zimmerman
1948a, pp. 232-233; Larsen 1996, p. 40). This species is found in
streams and can be abundant in lowland ponds and reservoirs. It feeds
on any suitably sized insect, including damselfly naiads (Zalom 1978,
p. 617). Two additional species of backswimmers have become established
in Hawaii, Anisops kuroiwae (NCN) on Maui and Lanai, and Notonecta
indica (NCN) on Hawaii Island, Oahu, and Maui (Larsen 1996, pp. 39-40).
The mere presence of backswimmers in the water can cause naiads to stop
foraging, reducing their growth, development, and survival (Heads 1986,
pp. 375-376). Because of these attributes, predation by backswimmers
poses a threat to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly.
Ants
At least 47 species of ants are known to be introduced and
established in the Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii Ants 2008, 11 pp.). No
native ants species occur in Hawaii, and the native yellow-faced bee
species in Hawaii evolved in the absence of predation pressure from
ants. Ants are known to prey upon Hawaiian yellow-faced bee (Hylaeus)
species, with observations of drastic reductions in yellow-faced bee
populations in ant-infested areas (Medeiros et al. 1986, pp. 45-46;
Reimer 1994, p. 17; Stone and Loope 1987, p. 251; Cole et al. 1992, pp.
1313, 1317, 1320). The presence of ants in nearly all of the low-
elevation habitat sites currently and historically occupied by yellow-
faced bee species may preclude these species' recovery in some of these
areas (Reimer 1994, pp. 17-18; Daly and Magnacca 2003, pp. 9-10).
Although the primary impact of ants on Hawaii's native invertebrate
fauna is via predation, they also compete for nectar (Reimer 1994, p.
17; Howarth 1985, p. 155; Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Holway et al. 2002,
pp. 188, 209; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155) and nest
sites (Krushelnycky et al. 2005, pp. 6-7). Some ant species may impact
yellow-faced bee species indirectly as well, by consuming seeds of
native plants, thereby reducing the plants' recruitment and fecundity
(Bond and Slingsby 1984, p. 1031). The threat of ant predation on the
yellow-faced bees is amplified by the fact that most ant species have
winged reproductive adults and can quickly expand their range by
establishing new colonies in suitable habitat (Staples and Cowie 2001,
p. 55). In addition, these attributes allow some ants to destroy
otherwise geographically isolated populations of native arthropods
(Nafus 1993, pp. 19, 22-23). Several studies suggest a serious
ecosystem-level effect of invasive ants on pollination (Krushelnycky
2005, p. 9; Lach 2008, p. 155). Where ranges overlap, ants compete with
native pollinators such as yellow-faced bees and preclude them from
pollinating native plants (Howarth 1985, p. 157). Lach (2008, p. 155)
found that yellow-faced bees that regularly consume pollen from flowers
of Metrosideros polymorpha (ohia) were entirely absent from trees with
flowers visited by the ant Pheidole megacephala.
The four most aggressive ant species in Hawaii are: The big-headed
ant (Pheidole megacephala), the yellow crazy ant (Anoplolepis
gracilipes), the tropical fire ant (Solenopsis geminata), and S.
papuana (NCN). The big-headed ant is native to central Africa and was
first reported in Hawaii in 1879 (Krushelnycky et al. 2005, p. 24).
This species occurs from coastal to mesic habitat up to 4,000 ft (1,220
m) in

[[Page 58892]]

elevation. With few exceptions, native insects have been eliminated in
habitats where the big-headed ant is present (Perkins 1913, p. xxxix;
Gagne 1979, p. 81; Gillespie and Reimer 1993, p. 22). Native habitat of
the yellow crazy ant is not known, but it is speculated the species
originated in West Africa (MacGown 2015, in litt.). It occurs in low-
to mid-elevation (less than 2,000 ft (600 m)) in rocky areas of
moderate rainfall (less than 100 in (250 cm) annually) (Reimer et al.
1990, p. 42). Although surveys have not been conducted to ascertain
this species' presence in each of the known habitats occupied by the
seven yellow-faced bees, we know that the yellow crazy ant occurs
adjacent to some of the identified populations' sites based upon
observations of their expanding range and their preference for coastal
and dry forest habitat (as indicated where the species is most commonly
collected) (Antweb 2015, in litt.; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 13-14).
Direct observations indicate that Hawaiian arthropods are susceptible
to predation by this ant species. Gillespie and Reimer (1993, pp. 21,
26) and Hardy (1979, p. 37-38) documented the complete elimination of
native spiders from mesic and dry forests after they were invaded by
the big-headed ant and the yellow crazy ant. Lester and Tavite (2004,
p. 291) found that the yellow crazy ant in the Tokelau Atolls (Central
Polynesia) form very high densities in a relatively short period of
time with locally serious consequences for invertebrate diversity.
Densities of 3,600 individuals collected in pitfall traps within a 24-
hour period were observed, as well as predation on invertebrates
ranging from crabs to other ant species. Results from these and other
studies (Reimer et al. 1990, p. 47) indicate that yellow crazy ants
have the potential as predators to profoundly affect endemic insect
fauna in areas they occupy. We believe that the yellow crazy ant is a
threat to populations of the Hawaiian yellow-faced bees in areas within
their range. Solenopsis papuana, native to the Pacific region but not
to Hawaii, is the only abundant, aggressive ant that has invaded intact
mesic and wet forest, as well as coastal and lowland dry ecosystems.
First detected in 1967, this species occurs from sea level to over
3,600 ft (1,100 m) on all of the main Hawaiian Islands, and is still
expanding its range (Reimer et al. 1990, p. 42; Reimer 1993, p. 14).
Studies have been conducted that suggest a negative effect of this ant
species on indigenous invertebrates (Gillespie and Reimer 1993, p. 21).
Although surveys have not been conducted to ascertain the presence of
S. papuana in each of the known ecosystems occupied by the seven
yellow-faced bees, because of the expanding range of this introduced
ant species, and its widespread occurrence in coastal to wet habitats,
it is a possible threat to all known populations of the seven yellow-
faced bees proposed for listing in this rule. Solenopsis geminata is
also considered a significant threat to native invertebrates in Hawaii
(Wong and Wong 1988, p. 171). Found in drier areas of all the main
Hawaiian Islands, it displaced Pheidole megacephala megacephala as the
dominant ant in some localities more than 20 years ago (Wong and Wong
1988, p. 175). Known to be a voracious predator, Solenopsis geminata
this ant species was documented to significantly increase native fruit
fly mortality in field studies in Hawaii (Wong and Wong 1988, p. 175).
Solenopsis geminata is included in among the eight species ranked as
having the highest potential risk to New Zealand species in a detailed
pest risk assessment for the country (GISD 2011, in litt.), and is
included as one of the five ant species listed among the ``100 of the
World's Worst Invaders'' (Manaaki Landcare Research 2015, in litt.). In
addition to predation, S. geminata workers tend honeydew-producing
members of the Homoptera suborder, especially mealybugs, which can
impact plants directly and indirectly through the spread of disease
(Manaaki Landcare Research 2015, in litt.). Although surveys have not
been conducted to ascertain the presence of S. geminata in each of the
known seven yellow-faced bees' habitat sites, because of its expanding
range and widespread presence, S. geminata is a threat to all known
populations of the seven yellow-faced bees.
Although we have no direct information that correlates the decrease
in populations of the seven yellow-faced bees in this proposal directly
to the establishment of nonnative ants, predation of and competition
with other yellow-faced bee species by ants has been documented,
resulting in clear reductions in or absence of populations (Magnacca
and King 2013, p. 24). We expect similar predation impacts to the seven
yellow-faced bees proposed for listing in this rule to continue as a
result of the widespread presence of ants throughout the Hawaiian
Islands, their highly efficient and non-specific predatory behavior,
and their ability to quickly disperse and establish new colonies.
Therefore, we conclude that predation by nonnative ants represents a
threat to the continued existence of the seven yellow-faced bees, now
and into the future.
Wasps
Predation by the western yellow jacket wasp (Vespula pensylvanica)
is an ongoing threat to the seven yellow-faced bees (Gambino et al.
1987, p. 170; Wilson et al. 2009, pp. 1-5). The western yellow jacket
is a social wasp species native to mainland North America. It was first
reported on Oahu in the 1930s (Sherley 2000, p. 121), and an aggressive
race became established in 1977 (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 170). In
temperate climates, the western yellow jacket wasp has an annual life
cycle, but in Hawaii's tropical climate, colonies of this species
persist year round, allowing growth of large populations (Gambino et
al. 1987, p. 170) and thus a greater impact on prey populations. Most
colonies occur between 2,000 and 3,500 ft (600 and 1050 m) in elevation
(Gambino et al. 1990, p. 1088), although they can also occur at sea
level. The western yellow jacket wasp is known to be an aggressive,
generalist predator and has been documented preying upon Hawaiian
yellow-faced bee species (Gambino et al. 1987, p. 170; Wilson et al.
2009, p. 2). It has been suggested that the western yellow jacket wasp
may compete for nectar with native Hawaiian invertebrates, but we have
no information to suggest this represents a threat to the seven yellow-
faced bees. Predation by the western yellow jacket wasp is a
significant threat to the seven yellow-faced bee species because of the
wasps' presence in habitat combined with the small number of
occurrences and small population sizes of the Hawaiian yellow-faced
bees.
Summary of Factor C
We are unaware of any information that indicates that disease is a
threat to the 39 plant species. We are also unaware of any information
that indicates that disease is a threat to the band-rumped storm-
petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, or the anchialine pool
shrimp, Procaris hawaiana, or the seven yellow-faced bees proposed for
listing in this rule.
We consider predation and herbivory by one or more of the nonnative
animal species (pigs, goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, sheep,
mouflon, cattle, rats, barn owls, cats, mongooses, fish, slugs,
backswimmers, ants, and wasps) to pose an ongoing threat to 33 of the
39 plant species and to all 10 animal species proposed for listing
throughout their ranges (see Table 3) for the following reasons:
(1) Observations and reports have documented that pigs, goats, axis
deer,

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black-tailed deer, sheep, mouflon, and cattle browse 26 of the 39 plant
species (see Table 3), in addition to other studies demonstrating the
negative impacts of ungulate browsing on native plant species of the
islands. Browsing by blackbuck antelope is currently a potential threat
to plants that occur in the dry areas of Molokai, including the host
plants for the yellow-faced bees.
(2) Nonnative rats and slugs cause mechanical damage to plants and
destruction of plant parts (branches, flowers, fruits, and seeds), and
are considered a threat to 20 of the 39 plant species proposed for
listing (see Table 3).
(3) Rats also prey upon adults, juveniles, and eggs of the band-
rumped storm-petrel, and are linked with the dramatic decline of many
closely related bird species. Because rats are found in all of the
ecosystems in which the band-rumped storm-petrel occurs, we consider
predation by rats to be an ongoing threat.
(4) Barn owls and cats have established populations in the wild on
all the main Hawaiian islands, and mongooses have established
populations on all the main islands except for Kauai. Predation by
these animals is an ongoing threat to the band-rumped storm-petrel.
(5) The absence of Hawaiian damselflies (including the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly) in streams and other aquatic habitat on the main
Hawaiian Islands is strongly correlated with the presence of predatory
nonnative fish; numerous observations and reports suggest nonnative
predatory fishes eliminate native Hawaiian damselflies from these
habitats. Accordingly, predation by nonnative fishes is an ongoing
threat to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly.
(6) Once introduced to anchialine pools, nonnative fish, through
predation and competition for food sources, directly impact anchialine
pool shrimp, including Procaris hawaiana, and also disrupt anchialine
pool ecology.
(7) Herbivory (leading to damage, destruction of reproductive
parts, and mortality of seedlings) by slugs, is a known threat to 10 of
the 39 plant species proposed for listing.
(8) The presence of backswimmers in aquatic habitat can cause
damselfly naiads, including those of the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly, to stop foraging, reducing their growth, development, and
survivability. In addition, backswimmers can directly feed on damselfly
naiads, posing a significant threat to the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly.
(9) Predation by nonnative ants and wasps poses a threat to all
seven yellow-faced bees.
These threats are serious and ongoing, act in concert with other
threats to the species, and are expected to continue or increase in
magnitude and intensity into the future without effective management
actions to control or eradicate them. In addition, negative impacts to
native Hawaiian plants on Molokai from grazing and browsing by
blackbuck antelope are likely should this nonnative ungulate increase
in numbers and range on the island. The effects of the combined threats
suggest the need for immediate implementation of recovery and
conservation methodologies.

D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

Currently, there are no existing Federal, State, or local laws,
treaties, or regulations that specifically conserve or protect 48 of
the 49 species (except the band-rumped storm-petrel, as discussed
below) proposed for listing, or adequately address the threats to all
49 species described in this proposed rule. There are a few small
programs and organizations that conduct vegetation monitoring, and
nonnative species and predator control, but these activities are not
regulatory, and continuation of conservation efforts, or funding for
them, is not guaranteed. Hawaii's Plant Extinction Prevention Program
(PEPP) is a multi-agency (Federal, State, and private) program that
identifies and supports the ``rarest of the rare'' Hawaiian plant
species in need of immediate conservation efforts. The goal of PEPP is
to prevent the extinction of plants species that have fewer than 50
individuals remaining in the wild in the Hawaiian Islands and Guam and
the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (GPEPP). Partnerships
such as the Hawaii Invasive Species Council (HISC) and the Coordinating
Group on Alien Pest Species (CGAPS) were formed in 2002 and 1995,
respectively, but their conservation actions are also limited, as
discussed below. The capacity of Federal and State agencies and their
nongovernmental partners in Hawaii to mitigate the effects of nonnative
species, such as ungulates and weeds, is limited due to the large
number of taxa currently causing damage (CGAPS 2009). Many invasive
nonnative plants established in the Hawaiian Islands have currently
limited but expanding ranges and are of concern. Resources available to
reduce the spread of these species and counter their negative effects
are limited. Control efforts are largely focused on a few invasive
species that cause significant economic or environmental damage to
public and private lands. Comprehensive control of an array of
nonnative species and management to reduce disturbance regimes that
favor them remains limited in scope. If current levels of funding and
regulatory support for control of nonnative species are maintained, the
Service expects existing programs to continue to exclude or, on a very
limited basis, control these species only in the highest-priority
areas. Threats from established nonnative ungulates and predators,
plants, and invertebrates are ongoing and expected to continue into the
future.
The Hawaiian population of band-rumped storm-petrel is currently
protected under Federal law by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) (16
U.S.C. 703 et seq.). The MBTA is the domestic law that implements the
United States' commitment to four international conventions (with
Canada, Japan, Mexico, and Russia) for the protection of shared
migratory bird resources. The MBTA regulates most aspects of take,
possession, transport, sale, purchase, barter, export, and import of
migratory birds and prohibits the killing, capturing, and collecting of
individuals, eggs, and nests, unless such action is authorized by
permit. While the MBTA does prohibit actions that directly kill a
covered species, unlike the Endangered Species Act it does not prohibit
habitat modification that indirectly kills or injures a covered
species, affords no habitat protection when the birds are not present,
and provides only very limited mechanisms for addressing chronic
threats to covered species. The Hawaiian population of the band-rumped
storm-petrel is listed by the State of Hawaii as an endangered species
under Hawaii State Endangered Species Act (Hawaii ESA) (HRS 195D-4(a)),
which also prohibits take, possession, sale, transport, or export of
adults, eggs, or young, except as authorized by law, license, or
permit, but like the MBTA, the Hawaii ESA affords no protection of
habitat.
Terrestrial Habitat and Feral Ungulates
Nonnative ungulates pose a major ongoing threat to 37 of the 39
plant species, and 9 of the 10 animals species (all except the
anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris hawaiana) through destruction and
modification of terrestrial habitat, and through direct predation of 26
of the 39 plant species (see ``A. The Present or Threatened
Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range'' and
``C. Disease and

[[Page 58894]]

Predation,'' above; and Table 3). The State of Hawaii provides game
mammal (feral pigs and goats; axis deer; black-tailed deer; and sheep,
mouflon, and mouflon-sheep hybrids) hunting opportunities on 91 State-
designated public hunting areas (within 45 units) on all the main
Hawaiian Islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau (HAR 2003, 13-123, rev
2010; HDLNR 2009, pp. 25-30); however, there are private hunting
opportunities on Niihau (Niihau Safaris Inc. 2015, in litt.). The
State's management objectives for game animals range from maximizing
public hunting opportunities (e.g., ``sustained yield'') in some areas
to removal by State staff or their designees in other areas (HAR 2003,
13-123 rev 2010; HDLNR 2009, pp. 25-30). Thirty of the 39 plant
species, the band-rumped storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly, and three yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus assimulans, H. facilis,
and H. longiceps) have populations in areas where terrestrial habitat
may be manipulated for game enhancement and game populations are
maintained at certain levels for public hunting (Holmes and Joyce 2009,
4 pp.; HAR 2003, 13-123, rev 2010; HBMP 2010). Public hunting areas are
defined, but not fenced, and game mammals have unrestricted access to
most areas across the landscape, regardless of underlying land-use
designation. While fences are sometimes built to protect areas from
game mammals, the current number and locations of fences are not
adequate to prevent habitat destruction and modification for 37 of the
39 plant species, the band-rumped storm-petrel, the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly, or the seven yellow-faced bees on all the main
Hawaiian islands (except Kahoolawe) (see Table 3). After an incident in
2012 of inter-island transport of axis deer to Hawaii Island, which
until that time had been free of axis deer, a bill was enacted to
prohibit inter-island transportation and possession of wild or feral
deer under Hawaii Revised Statute Title 12, 183D-52 (2014), but there
are no other regulations designed to address habitat protection from
ungulates, including game mammals.
Aquatic Habitat
Existing regulations are inadequate to maintain stream flow,
springs, ponds, and seeps year-round for the different life stages of
the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, proposed for listing in this rule.
In Hawaii, instream flow is regulated by establishing standards on a
stream-by-stream basis. The standards currently in effect represent
flow conditions in 1987 (status quo), the year the administrative rules
were adopted (State Water Code, HRS 174C-71, and HAR Title 13, Ch 169-
44-49). The State of Hawaii considers all natural flowing surface water
(streams, springs, and seeps) as State property (HRS 174C), and the
HDLNR has management responsibility for the aquatic organisms in these
waters (HRS Annotated 1988, Title 12; 1992 Cumulative Supplement).
Accordingly, damselfly populations (including the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly) in all natural flowing surface waters are under jurisdiction
of the State of Hawaii, regardless of property ownership.
The State of Hawaii manages the use of surface and ground water
resources through the Commission on Water Resource Management (Water
Commission), as mandated by the 1987 State Water Code (HRS 174 and HAR
Title 13, Ch 168 and 169). Because of the complexity of establishing
instream flow standards (IFS) for approximately 376 perennial streams,
the Water Commission established interim IFS at status quo levels in
1987 (Commission of Water Resource Management (CWRM) 2009). In the
Waiahole Ditch Combined Contested Hearing on Oahu (1997-2006), the
Hawaii Supreme Court determined that status quo interim IFS were not
adequate, and required the Water Commission to reassess the IFS for
Waiahole Ditch and other streams statewide (Case No. CCH-OA95-1; Maui
Now.com, in litt.). The Water Commission has been gathering information
to fulfill this requirement since 2006, but no IFS recommendations have
been made to date (CWRM 2008, p. 3-153; CWRM 2014, in litt.).
In the Hawaii Stream Assessment Report (DLNR 1990), prepared in
coordination with the National Park Service (NPS), the Water Commission
identified high-quality rivers or streams (and portions thereof) that
may be placed within a Wild and Scenic River system. This report ranked
70 out of 176 streams analyzed as outstanding high-quality habitat, and
recommended that streams meeting certain criteria be protected from
further development (DLNR 1990, pp. xxi-xxiv). However, there is no
mechanism within the State's Water Code to designate and set aside
these streams, or to identify and protect stream habitat, for
damselflies. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) has regulatory
jurisdiction under section 404 of the Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251
et seq.) for activities that would result in a discharge of dredged or
fill material into waters of the United States; however, in issuing
these permits, the COE does not typically establish IFS as a matter of
policy (U.S. Army 1985, RGL 85-6).
There are no existing regulatory mechanisms that specifically
protect Hawaii's anchialine pools (habitat for the anchialine pool
shrimp, Procaris hawaiana, and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly);
however, 2 anchialine pools on Maui and 12 anchialine pools on Hawaii
Island are located within State Natural Area Reserves (NARs) (Ahihi-
Kinau and Manuka, respectively). Designation as a State NAR prohibits
the removal of any native organism and the disturbance of pools (HAR
13-209-4). The State NARs were created to preserve and protect samples
of Hawaii's ecosystems and geological formations, and are actively
managed and monitored. Though signs are posted at NARs to notify the
public that pools are off-limits to bathers and other activities, the
State NARs have no funding for proper enforcement of those
restrictions.
Because there are currently no Federal, State, or local laws,
treaties, or regulations that specifically or effectively conserve or
protect the anchialine pool shrimp and the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly, or adequately address inadequate maintenance and protection
of instream flow, springs, seeps, and anchialine pools for the
anchialine pool shrimp and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly habitat,
these threats are ongoing and are expected to continue into the future.
Introduction of Nonnative Species
Under statutory authorities provided by Chapter 183D, HRS, the DLNR
maintains HAR Ch 124 (2014), which defines ``injurious wildlife'' as
``any species or subspecies of animal except game birds and game
mammals which is known to be harmful to agriculture, aquaculture,
indigenous wildlife or plants, or constitute a nuisance or health
hazard and is listed in the exhibit entitled ``Exhibit 5, Chapter 13-
124, List of Species of Injurious Wildlife in Hawaii.'' Under HAR 13-
124-3-(d), ``no person shall, or attempt to: (1) Release injurious
wildlife into the wild; (2) Transport them to islands or locations
within the State where they are not already established and living in a
wild state; and (3) Export any such species or the dead body or parts
thereof, from the State. Permits for these actions may be considered on
a case-by-case basis.'' As discussed in ``Habitat Destruction and
Modification by Introduced Ungulates,'' and ``Terrestrial Habitat and
Feral Ungulates,'' above, a bill was enacted to prohibit inter-island
transportation and possession of wild or feral deer under Hawaii
Revised Statute Title 12, 183D-

[[Page 58895]]

52 (2014), but no other game mammals are regulated by this statute.
Currently, four agencies are responsible for inspection of goods
arriving in Hawaii (CGAPS 2009). The Hawaii Department of Agriculture
(HDOA) inspects domestic cargo and vessels and focuses on nonnative
pest species of concern to Hawaii, especially insects or plant diseases
not yet known to be present in the State. The U.S. Department of
Homeland Security--Customs and Border Protection (CBP) is responsible
for inspecting commercial, private, and military vessels and aircraft
and related cargo and passengers arriving from foreign locations. CBP
focuses on a wide range of quarantine issues involving non-propagative
plant materials, wooden packing materials, timber, and products;
internationally regulated commercial species under the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES); and federally listed noxious plants and seeds, soil, and pests
of concern to the greater United States, such as pests to mainland U.S.
forests and agriculture. The U.S. Department of Agriculture--Animal and
Plant Health Inspection Service--Plant Protection and Quarantine (USDA-
APHIS-PPQ) inspects propagative plant material, provides identification
services for arriving plants and animals, conducts pest risk
assessments, and handles other related matters, but focuses on pests of
wide concern across the United States (HDOA 2009, in litt.). The
Service inspects arriving wildlife products, enforces the injurious
wildlife provisions of the Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. 42; 16 U.S.C. 3371 et
seq.), and prosecutes CITES violations.
The State of Hawaii's unique biosecurity needs are not recognized
by Federal import regulations, as these regulations are based on
species considered threats to the mainland United States, and not those
species that could become threats to native Hawaiian species (Hawaii
Legislative Reference Bureau (HLRB) 2002; USDA-APHIS-PPQ 2010; CGAPS
2009). Interstate commerce provides the pathway for new species to
enter Hawaii. Pest species may be intercepted, but are not always acted
on by Federal agents because these species are not regulated under
Federal mandates. Hence, Federal protection against pest species of
concern to Hawaii historically has been inadequate. It is possible for
the USDA to grant Hawaii protective exemptions under the ``Special
Local Needs Rule,'' when clear and comprehensive arguments for both
agricultural and conservation issues are provided; however, this
exemption procedure operates on a case-by-case basis and is extremely
time-consuming to satisfy. Therefore, there is only minimal protection
against a large diversity of nonnative species that arrive and may
negatively impact Hawaii.
Inadequate staffing, facilities, and equipment for Federal and
State inspectors devoted to invasive species interdiction are critical
biosecurity gaps (HLRB 2002; USDA-APHIS-PPQ 2010; CGAPS 2009). In
recognition of the gaps, State laws have recently been passed that
allow the HDOA to collect fees for quarantine inspection of freight
entering Hawaii (e.g., Act 36 (2011) HRS 150A-5.3). Legislation enacted
in 2011 (H.B. 1568) requires commercial harbors to provide biosecurity
and inspection facilities to facilitate the movement of cargo through
ports. This enactment is a significant step toward optimizing
biosecurity capacity in the State; however, only time will determine
the its effectiveness of this Act (Act 201(11)). From a Federal
perspective, there is a need to ensure all civilian and military port
and airport operations and construction are in compliance with the Act
201 (11State of Hawaii's laws.
In 1995, a partnership, Coordinating Group on Alien Pest Species
(CGAPS), comprised primarily of managers from every major Federal,
State, county, and private agency and organization involved in invasive
species work in Hawaii, was formed in an effort to influence policy and
funding decisions, improve communication, increase collaboration, and
promote public awareness (CGAPS 2009). This group facilitated the
formation of the Hawaii Invasive Species Council (HISC), which was
created by gubernatorial executive order in 2002, to coordinate local
initiatives for the prevention of introduction and for control of
invasive species by providing policy-level direction and planning for
the State departments responsible for invasive species issues (CGAPS
2009). In 2003, the Governor signed into law State Act 85, which
conveys statutory authority to the HISC to continue to coordinate
approaches among the various State and Federal agencies, and
international and local initiatives, for the prevention and control of
invasive species (HDLNR 2003, p. 3-15; HISC 2009; HRS 194-2(a)). Some
of the recent priorities for the HISC include interagency efforts to
control nonnative species such as the plants Miconia calvescens
(miconia) and Cortaderia sp. (pampas grass), coqui frogs
(Eleutherodactylus coqui), the coconut rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes
rhinoceros) (HISC 2013, in litt.; OISC 2015, in litt.), and ants (HISC
2009; HISC 2015, http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc). Budget cuts beginning in
2009 severely restricted State funding support of HISC, resulting in a
serious setback of conservation efforts (HISC 2009; HISC 2015, http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/projects/funding). As an example of current and
future challenges, a strain of the plant rust Puccinia psidii, also
referred to as ohia rust, was first noticed affecting stands of rose
apple and the native Metrosideros (ohia) seedlings (both in the plant
family Myrtaceae) in nurseries in 2005. Metrosideros spp. are a
dominant component of native forests in Hawaii, providing watershed
protection and wildlife habitat. The Hawaii Board of Agriculture
recommended a quarantine rule be passed against the introduction of all
new strains of ohia rust (mostly through transmission on Myrtaceae
species used in the horticulture trade), to prevent destruction of ohia
forests and the danger to agriculture and horticulture industries
(Environment Hawaii 2015, pp. 1, 8-9). However, this rule currently
remains in draft form and under review (HDOA 2015, http://hdoa.hawaii.gov/meetings-reports/proposedar, accessed April 9, 2015).
Nonnative Aquatic Species
Existing State and Federal regulatory mechanisms do not adequately
prevent the introduction of nonnative species to Hawaii via inter-State
and international mechanisms, or intra-State movement of nonnative
species between islands and watersheds in Hawaii. The importation of
non-domestic animals, including aquatic species, is regulated by a
permit system (HAR 4-71) managed through the HHDOA. The HDOA's Board of
Agriculture maintains lists of non-domestic animals that are prohibited
from entry, animals without entry restrictions, or those that require a
permit for import and possession. The HDOA requires a permit to import
animals, and conditionally approves entry for individual possession,
businesses (e.g., pet and resale trade, retail sales, and food
consumption), or institutions. However, Hawaii's Division of Aquatic
Resources recognizes that unwanted nonnative species, both aquatic and
terrestrial, are still entering the State and moving between islands
(DLNR 2003, p. 2-12).
The Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR), within the State's DLNR,
manages Hawaii's aquatic resources (HDAR 2015, in litt.), and is
responsible for conserving, protecting, and enhancing the State's
renewable resources of aquatic life and habitat (HDLNR 2003, p. 3-13).
The release of live nonnative fish or other live

[[Page 58896]]

nonnative aquatic life into any waters of the State is prohibited (HRS
187A-6.5). The DAR has the authority to seize, confiscate, or destroy
as a public nuisance; any fish or other aquatic life found in any State
waters whose importation is prohibited or restricted pursuant to rules
of the HDOA (HRS 187A-2, HRS 187A-6.5). State (HAR 71C) and Federal
regulations (Executive Order (E.O.) 13112, 1999 and 2005) are in place
to prevent the unauthorized entry of nonnative aquatic animals such as
fish and amphibians; however, their intentional or inadvertent
introduction and movement between islands and between watersheds
continues (HDAR 2003, pp. 2-12-2-14). There is insufficient agency
capacity to adequately enforce such regulations or to provide for
sufficient inspection services and monitoring, although this priority
need is recognized (Cravalho 2009, in litt.).
Nonnative Vertebrate Species
The State of Hawaii's laws prohibit the importation of all animals
unless they are specifically placed on a list of allowable species
(HLRB 2002; CGAPS 2010). The importation and interstate transport of
invasive vertebrates is federally regulated by the Service under the
Lacey Act as ``injurious wildlife'' (Fowler et al. 2007, pp. 353-359;
18 U.S.C. 42 et seq.-43 2006); the current list of vertebrates
considered as ``injurious wildlife'' is provided at 50 CFR part 16.
This law also prohibits importation of species listed as endangered or
threatened from other areas, or species from within protected areas
such as parks or forest reserves. The law in its current form prohibits
importation of a limited number of taxa (USFWS 2012;, 50 CFR part 16)
including fruit bats, mongoose, European rabbits and hares, wild dogs,
rats or mice, raccoon dogs, brushtail possum (New Zealand species),
starlings, house sparrows, mynas, dioch, Java sparrows, red whiskered
bulbuls, walking catfish, mitten crabs, zebra mussels, snakehead family
taxa, four species of carp, salmonids, brown tree snakes, and pythons.
In 2008, the Lacey Act was expanded to include prohibition of
importation of ``any plant that was illegally harvested,'' such as
illegally logged woods (USFWS 2012, 50 CFR 16). Mongoose, rabbits,
rats, mice, house sparrows, mynas, Java sparrows, red whiskered bulbuls
are already established in Hawaii, and are difficult and costly to
control, or are not controlled at all. Additionally, a species may be
imported or transported across State lines while it is being considered
for addition to the list of ``injurious wildlife'' (Fowler et al. 2007
pp. 357-358). The continued spread of injurious species nationwide
indicates the limited effectiveness of this regulation in preventing
vertebrate introductions into the State (Fowler et al. 2007, p. 357).
The Lacey Act requires declarations of importation only for formal
entries (i.e., commercial shipments), but not for informal entries
(i.e. personal shipments) (USDA-APHIS 2015, in litt.).
As a recent example in Hawaii, an opossum (Didelphis virginiana)
was found in a trap set for feral cats near Sand Island, Oahu, in July
2015. Opossums are not included on the Lacey Act's list of prohibited
speciesinjurious wildlife. Opossums, native to North America, occupy a
variety of habitat such as stream areas, forests, and agricultural
lands (Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife 2015, in litt.). They are
omnivores and scavengers, and eat a wide variety of food items
including insects, small vertebrates, bird eggs, slugs and snails,
snakes, and fruits and berries (Claremont College 2015, in litt.).
Opossums are known to hitchhike in shipping containers, and have been
found previously in containers on Oahu in 2005 and 2011 (Star
Advertiser 2015, in litt.). If opossums were to establish wild
populations in Hawaii, their predation on ground-nesting seabirds could
negatively impact species such as the band-rumped storm-petrel.
Nonnative Invertebrate Species
It is likely that the introduction of most nonnative invertebrate
pests to the State has been and continues to be accidental and
incidental to other intentional and permitted activities. The
prevention and control of introduction of nonnative invertebrates to
Hawaii is the responsibility of Hawaii State government and Federal
agencies, and is voluntarily addressed by a few private organizations
as well. Even though these agencies have regulations and some controls
in place, as discussed in ``Introduction of Nonnative Species'' and
``Nonnative Aquatic Species,'' above, the introduction and movement of
nonnative invertebrate pest species between islands and from one
watershed to the next continues. By the early 1990s, an average of 20
new alien invertebrate species was introduced to Hawaii per year, an
increase of 25 percent over the previous totals between 1930 and 1970
(TNCH 1992, p. 8). As an example, the threat of introduction of
nonnative invertebrate species is evidenced by the 2013 discovery of
the presence of the nonnative coconut rhinoceros beetle (CRB, Oryctes
rhinoceros), which quickly spread from its known point of introduction
across the island of Oahu in a few months (HISC 2014, + maps). The
coconut rhinoceros beetle is considered one of the most damaging
insects to coconut and African oil palm in southern and Southeast Asia,
as well as the western Pacific Islands, and has the potential to
devastate populations of native and nonnative palm species in Hawaii
(Giblin-Davis 2001 in HISC 2014, in litt.). While a rapid response team
headed by HDOA (with USDA, University of Hawaii, U.S. Navy, and other
partners; 2014) has set up pheromone traps island-wide, and capture and
range delineation efforts are ongoing, along with funding for support
services to capture and control the CRB for fiscal year 2015 (HISC
2014, in litt.), existing regulatory mechanisms did not prevent its
introduction into Hawaii. Existing regulatory mechanisms, such as HRS
187A-6.5 and HAR 71C (regarding release of nonnative aquatic species),
and H.B. 1568 (pertaining to the State law to enforce biosecurity
measures), therefore appear inadequate to prevent introductions of
nonnative invertebrates. Efforts to ameliorate the threat of the beetle
continue, but whether those efforts will be effective in controlling or
eliminating this threat is unknown at this time.
Nonnative Plant Species
The State of Hawaii allows the importation of most plant taxa, with
limited exceptions, if shipped from domestic ports (HLRB 2002; USDA-
APHIS-PPQ 2010; CGAPS 2009). Hawaii's plant import rules (HAR 4-70)
regulate the importation of 13 plant taxa of economic interest;
regulated crops include pineapple, sugarcane, palms, and pines. Certain
horticultural crops (e.g., orchids) may require import permits and have
pre-entry requirements that include treatment or quarantine or both
either prior to or following entry into the State. The State Noxious
Weed list (HAR 4-68) and USDA-APHIS-PPQ's Restricted Plants List
restrict the import of a limited number of noxious weeds. If not
specifically prohibited, current Federal regulations allow plants to be
imported from international ports with some restrictions. The Federal
Noxious Weed List (see 7 CFR 360.200) includes few of the many globally
known invasive plants, and plants in general do not require a weed risk
assessment prior to importation from international ports. The USDA-
APHIS-PPQ is in the process of finalizing rules to include a weed risk
assessment for newly imported plants. Although the State has

[[Page 58897]]

general guidelines for the importation of plants, and regulations are
in place regarding the plant crops mentioned above, the intentional or
inadvertent introduction of nonnative plants outside the regulatory
process and movement of species between islands and from one watershed
to the next continues, and represents a threat to native flora and
fauna for the reasons mentioned above. In addition, government funding
is inadequate to provide for sufficient inspection services and
monitoring. One study concluded that the plant importation laws
virtually ensure new invasive plants will be introduced via the nursery
and ornamental trade, and that outreach efforts cannot keep up with the
multitude of new invasive plants being distributed (Martin 2007, in
litt.). The author states the only effective method to address this
issue is to use public outreach to encourage consumers to purchase and
use only noninvasive or native plants in landscaping (Martin 2007, in
litt.).
On the basis of the above information, existing State and Federal
regulatory mechanisms are not preventing the introduction of nonnative
species into Hawaii via interstate and international pathways, or via
intrastate movement of nonnative species between islands and
watersheds. Therefore, State and Federal regulatory mechanisms do not
adequately protect the 49 species, or their habitats, addressed in this
rule from the threat of new introductions of nonnative species or the
continued expansion of nonnative species populations on and between
islands and watersheds. The impacts from these threats are ongoing and
are expected to continue into the future.
Summary of Factor D
Existing State and Federal regulatory mechanisms are not preventing
the introduction into Hawaii of nonnative species or controlling the
spread of nonnative species between islands and watersheds. Habitat-
altering nonnative plant species (Factor A) and predation by nonnative
animal species (Factor C) pose major ongoing threats to all 49 species
addressed in this rule. Thirty-seven of the 39 plant species, the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and the yellow-faced bees (Hylaeus
anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, and H. longiceps)
experience the threat of habitat destruction and modification by
nonnative plants (Factor A), and 26 of the 39 plants, and all 10
animals, experience the threat of predation and herbivory by nonnative
animals (Factor C). Therefore, we conclude the existing regulatory
mechanisms discussed above are inadequate to sufficiently reduce these
threats to these species.

E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their Continued Existence

Other factors threatening some or all of the 49 species include
artificial lighting and structures, ingestion of marine debris and
plastics, dumping of trash and the introduction of nonnative fish into
anchialine pools, recreational use of and sedimentation of anchialine
pools, low numbers of individuals and populations, hybridization, lack
of or declining regeneration, competition with nonnative invertebrates,
and loss of host plants Each threat is discussed in detail below, along
with identification of which species are affected by these threats. The
impacts of climate change to these species and their ecosystems have
the potential to exacerbate all of the threats described above.
Artificial Lighting and Structures Effects on the Band-Rumped Storm-
Petrel
Artificial lights are a well-documented threat to night-flying
seabirds such as petrels, shearwaters, and storm-petrels (Croxall et
al. 2012, p. 28). A significant impact to the band-rumped storm-petrel
results from the effects of artificial (night) lighting on fledglings
and, to a lesser degree, on adults. Lighting of roadways, resorts,
ballparks, residences, and other development, as well as on cruise
ships out at sea, both attracts and confuses night-flying storm-petrels
and other seabirds (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49; Reed et al. 1985, p.
377; Telfer et al. 1987, pp. 412-413; Banko et al. 1991, p. 651).
Storm-petrels use the night sky to navigate and possibly to search for
bioluminescent ocean prey (Telfer et al. 1987, p. 412). Artificial
lights can cause confusion, exhaustion, and possible collision with
structures, followed by fallout. The seabirds are then either too
exhausted to fly or seriously injured, and, once grounded, are at risk
of predation or being run over by cars (Reed et al. 1985, p. 377;
Telfer et al. 1987, p. 410). Vulnerability to artificial lighting
varies between species and age classes and according to the influence
of season, lunar phase, and weather conditions. Young birds are more
likely to become disoriented by manmade light sources (Montevecchi
2006, pp. 101-102). Over a 12-year period (1978 to 1990), Harrison et
al. (1990, p. 49) reported that 15 band-rumped storm-petrels, 13 of
which were young, were recovered on Kauai as a result of fallout.
Between 1991 and 2008, another 21 band-rumped storm-petrels were
collected on Kauai (Holmes and Joyce 2009, p. 2). Currently, fallout
due to light pollution is recorded almost annually on Kauai (Kauai
Island Utility Cooperative 2015, in litt.). However, the actual extent
of such loss and its overall impact on the band-rumped storm-petrel
population in Hawaii is not known because scavengers often prevent the
detection or recovery of the dead or injured birds, but any loss in
such a small population is significant.
A related threat to seabirds in Hawaii, including the band-rumped
storm-petrel, is collision with structures such as communication towers
and utility lines (Cooper and Day 1998, pp. 16-18; Podolsky et al.
1998, pp. 23-33). Several seabird species that nest in the Hawaiian
Islands, including the Newell's shearwater (federally listed as
threatened), the Hawaiian petrel (federally listed as endangered), and
the band-rumped storm-petrel, regularly commute between inland nest
sites and the ocean. These birds commute at night when manmade
obstacles such as communication towers and utility lines are difficult
to see. They strike these unseen obstacles, and often die or are
injured as a result. An early study estimated that 340 Newell's
shearwater fledglings die annually on the eastern and southern shores
of Kauai as a result of collisions (Podolsky et al. 1998, p. 30);
however, current analyses for all seabirds on Kauai indicate the number
of collisions with utility lines is much higher, over 2,000 strikes per
year (using site-specific strike rates), but numbers of birds that hit
utility lines is very site-dependent (Travers et al. 2014, pp. 19, 29-
37; Service 2015, in litt., Slide 21). The impact to the band-rumped
storm-petrel from artificial lighting and collisions with structures is
expected to increase as the human population grows and development
continues on the Hawaiian Islands.
Other Human Effects on the Band-Rumped Storm-Petrel
Other factors that may negatively affect the band-rumped storm-
petrel include commercial fisheries interactions and alteration of prey
base upon which the band-rumped storm-petrel depends. Commercial
fisheries are known to adversely affect certain species of seabirds
(Furness 2003, pp. 33-35; Croxall et al. 2012, p. 24). Seabirds are
caught in most types of fishing gear, notably in nets and on long-
lines, where they suffer mortality by drowning. Seabirds attending
fishing vessels also come into contact with and consume deep-water fish
they would not normally have access to, and can become contaminated by
high levels of heavy metals in these fish (Furness

[[Page 58898]]

2003, p. 34). Commercial fisheries also cause depletion of small
pelagic schooling fish, a significant food source for seabirds (Furness
2003, p. 34). The potential effects of these activities have not been
assessed for the band-rumped storm-petrel; however, we believe they can
have the same effects as have been shown for other seabirds. In
addition, pollution of the open ocean by plastics and other marine
debris that can be mistaken for food by band-rumped storm-petrels may
pose a threat to this species (Ryan 1989, p. 629). Although a study by
Moser and Lee (1992, p. 85) found no evidence of plastic ingestion by
band-rumped storm-petrels, the sample size was very small (4
individuals) and inadequate to conclusively determine whether this
species suffers from ingestion of plastics. Many closely related
seabirds do suffer ill effects from ingestion of plastics, including
physical damage to the digestive tract, effects of toxins carried on
the plastics, and resulting mortality (Ryan 1989, pp. 623-629).
Effects of Recreational Use, and Dumping of Trash and Nonnative Fish
into Anchialine Pools
On Hawaii Island, it is estimated that up to 90 percent of the
anchialine pools have been destroyed or altered by human activities
(Brock 2004, p. i). The more recent human modification of anchialine
pools includes bulldozing and filling of pools (Bailey-Brock and Brock
1993, p. 354). Trampling damage from use of anchialine pools for
swimming and bathing has been documented (Brock 2004, pp. 13-17).
Historically, pools were sometimes modified with stone walls and steps
by Hawaiians who used them for bathing. There are no documented
negative impacts to pond biota as a result of this activity; however,
introduction of soaps and shampoos is of concern (Brock 2004, p. 15).
The depressional features of anchialine pools make them susceptible
to dumping. Refuse found in degraded pools and pools that have been
filled with rubble have been dated to about 100 years old, and the
practice of dumping trash into pools continues today (Brock 2004, p.
15). For example, Lua O Palahemo (Hawaii Island) is located
approximately 560 ft (170 m) from a sandy beach frequented by visitors
who fish and swim. There are multiple dirt roads that surround the pool
making it highly accessible. Plastic bags, paper, fishing line, water
bottles, soda cans, radios, barbed wire, and a bicycle have been
documented within the pool (Kensley and Williams 1986, pp. 417-418;
Bozanic 2004, p. 1; Wada 2010, in litt.). Introduction of trash
involving chemical contamination into anchialine pools, as has been
observed elsewhere on Hawaii Island (Brock 2004, pp. 15-16), could more
drastically affect water quality and result in local extirpation of
anchialine pool shrimp species.
Anchialine pool habitats can gradually disappear when wind-blown
materials accumulate through a process known as senescence (Maciolek
and Brock 1974, p. 3; Brock 2004, pp. 11, 35-36). Conditions promoting
rapid senescence include an increased amount of sediment deposition,
good exposure to light, shallowness, and a weak connection with the
water table, resulting in sediment and detritus accumulating within the
pool instead of being flushed away with tidal exchanges and ground
water flow (Maciolek and Brock 1974, p. 3; Brock 2004, pp. 11, 35-36).
Sedimentation may be degrading the health of Hawaiian anchialine pool
systems in which the anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris hawaiana, and the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, occur.
In general, the accidental or intentional introduction and spread
of nonnative fishes (bait and aquarium fish) is considered the greatest
threat to anchialine pools in Hawaii (Brock 2004, p. 16). Maciolek
(1983, p. 612) found that the abundance of shrimp in a given population
is indirectly related to predation by fish. Lua O Palahemo is
vulnerable to the intentional dumping of nonnative bait and aquarium
fishes because the area is accessible to vehicles and human traffic;
however, due to its remote location, is not monitored regularly by
State agency staff. The release of mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) and
tilapia (Tilapia mossambica) into the Waikoloa Anchialine Pond Preserve
(WAAPA) at Waikoloa, North Kona, Hawaii, resulted in the infestation of
all ponds within an approximately 3-ha (8-ac) area, which represented
about two-thirds of the WAAPA. Within 6 months, all native hypogeal
(subterranean) shrimp species disappeared (Brock 2004, p. iii).
Nonnative fishes drive anchialine species out of the lighted, higher
productivity portion of the pools, into the surrounding water table bed
rock, subsequently leading to the decimation of the benthic community
structure of the pool (Brock 2004, p. iii). In addition, nonnative
fishes prey on and exclude native hypogeal shrimp that are usually a
dominant and essential faunal component of anchialine pool ecosystems
(Brock 2004, p. 16; Bailey-Brock and Brock 1993, pp. 338-355). The loss
of the shrimp changes ecological succession by reducing herbivory of
macroalgae, allowing an overgrowth and change of pool flora. This
overgrowth changes the system from clear, well-flushed basins to a
system characterized by heavy sedimentation and poor water exchange,
which increases the rate of pool senescence (Brock 2004, p. 16).
Nonnative fishes, unlike native fishes, are able to complete their life
cycles within anchialine pool habitats, and remain a permanent
detrimental presence in all pools in which they are introduced (Brock
2004, p. 16). In Hawaii, the most frequently introduced fishes are
those in the Poeciliidae family (freshwater fish which bear live young)
and include mosquito fish, various mollies (Poecilia spp.), and
tilapia, which prey on and exclude the herbivorous aquatic animals upon
which Procaris hawaiana feed. More than 90 percent of the 600 to 700
anchialine habitats in the State of Hawaii were degraded between 1974
and 2004, due to the introduction of nonnative fishes, and we expect
that this activity continues (Brock 2004, p. 24). According to Brock
(2012, pers. comm.), sometime in the 1980s, nonnative fishes were
introduced into Lua O Palahemo. It is our understanding that the fish
were subsequently removed by illegal use of a fish poison (EPA 2007,
pp. 22-23; Finlayson et al. 2010, p. 2), and to our knowledge the pool
is currently free of nonnative fish; however, nonnative fish could be
introduced into the pool at any time.
Low Numbers of Individuals and Populations
Species that undergo significant habitat loss and degradation and
other threats resulting in population decline and range reduction and
fragmentation are inherently highly vulnerable to extinction because of
localized catastrophes such as hurricanes, floods, rockfalls,
landslides, treefalls, and drought; climate change impacts; demographic
stochasticity; and the increased risk of genetic bottlenecks and
inbreeding depression (Gilpin and Soul[eacute] 1986, pp. 24-34). These
conditions are easily reached by island species and especially by
species endemic to single islands that face numerous threats such as
those described in this proposal (Pimm et al. 1988, p. 757; Mangel and
Tier 1994, p. 607). Populations that have been diminished and isolated
by habitat loss, predation, and other threats may exhibit reduced
levels of genetic variability, which can diminish the species' capacity
to adapt to environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of
long-term

[[Page 58899]]

persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p.
361). Very small, isolated plant populations are also more susceptible
to reduced reproductive vigor due to ineffective pollination,
inbreeding depression, and hybridization. This is particularly true for
functionally unisexual plants in this proposal like Myrsine fosbergii
of which some individuals are functionally dioecious (staminate (male)
and pistillate (female) flowers occur on separate individuals).
Isolated individuals have difficulty in achieving natural pollen
exchange, which decreases the production of viable seed. Populations
are also impacted by demographic stochasticity, through which
populations are skewed toward either male or female individuals by
chance. The problems associated with small occurrence size and
vulnerability to random demographic fluctuations or natural
catastrophes are further magnified by interactions with other threats,
such as those discussed above (see Factor A and Factor C, above).
Plants
The effects resulting from having a reduced number of individuals
and occurrences poses a threat to all 39 plant species addressed in
this proposal. We consider the following 19 species even more
vulnerable to extinction due to threats associated with small
occurrence size or small number of occurrences because:
The only known occurrences of Cyanea kauaulaensis,
Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, and Phyllostegia helleri are
threatened either by landslides, rockfalls, treefalls, drought, or
erosion, or a combination of these factors.
Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyrtandra hematos, Gardenia remyi,
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, and
Nothocestrum latifolium are declining and they have not been observed
regenerating in the wild.
The only known wild individuals of Cyperus neokunthianus,
Kadua haupuensis, and Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii are extirpated;
there is one remaining individual of Deparia kaalaana, and only two
individuals of Phyllostegia brevidens. Kadua haupuensis, Phyllostegia
brevidens, and Stenogyne kaalae ssp. Sherffii only exist in
propagation.
The following single-island endemic species are known from
fewer than 250 individuals: Asplenium diellaciniatum, Cyanea
kauaulaensis, Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra hematos, Dryopteris
glabra var. pusilla, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Kadua
haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, Phyllostegia
helleri, Pritchardia bakeri, Santalum involutum, Stenogyne kaalae ssp.
sherffii, and Wikstroemia skottsbergiana.
Animals
Like most native island biota, the Hawaiian population of band-
rumped storm-petrel, the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the anchialine
pool shrimp (Procaris hawaiana), and the seven yellow-faced bees are
particularly sensitive to disturbances due to their diminished numbers
of individuals and populations, and small geographic ranges.
The band-rumped storm-petrel is represented in Hawaii by very small
numbers of populations, and perhaps not more than a few hundred
individuals (Harrison et al. 1990, p. 49). A single human-caused action
such as establishment of mongoose on Kauai, or a hurricane during
breeding season, could cause reproductive failure and the mortality of
a significant percentage of the extant individuals. Threats to this
species include habitat destruction and modification, landslides and
erosion, hurricanes, predation, injury and mortality from lights and
structures, and other human factors (such as commercial fisheries). The
effects of these threats are compounded by the current low number of
individuals and populations of band-rumped storm-petrel.
We consider the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly vulnerable to
extinction due to impacts associated with low numbers of individuals
and low numbers of populations because this species is known from only
5 of 8 Hawaiian Islands (Hawaii Island, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and
Oahu), where it occurred historically, and because of the current
reduction in numbers on each of those five islands. Jordan et al.
(2007, p. 247) conducted a genetic and comparative phylogeography
analysis (a study of historical processes responsible for genetic
divergence within a species) of four Hawaiian Megalagrion species,
including the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. This analysis
demonstrated Megalagrion populations with low genetic diversity are at
greater risk of decline and extinction that those with high genetic
diversity. The authors found that low genetic diversity was observed in
populations known to be bottlenecked or relictual (groups of animals or
plants that exist as a remnant of a formerly widely distributed group),
including populations of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly. The
following threats to this species have all been documented: Habitat
destruction and modification by agriculture and urban development,
fire, droughts, floods, and hurricanes; predation by nonnative fish and
backswimmers; and water extraction from streams and ponds. The effects
of these threats are compounded by the current low number of
individuals and populations of the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly.
We consider the anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris hawaiana,
vulnerable to extinction due to impacts associated with low numbers of
individuals and populations because this species is known from only 25
of over 500 assessed anchialine pools on Hawaii Island, and from only 2
anchialine pools on Maui. Threats to P. hawaiana include: Habitat
destruction and modification by agriculture and urban development;
commercial trade; dumping of nonnative fish and trash into anchialine
pools; and water extraction. The effects of these threats are
compounded by the low number of individuals and populations of P.
hawaiana.
We consider the seven Hawaiian yellow-faced bees vulnerable to
extinction due to impacts associated with low numbers of individuals
and populations. The 7 yellow-faced bee species currently occur in only
22 locations (with some overlap) on 6 main Hawaiian Islands, and are
likely more vulnerable to habitat change and stochastic events due to
low numbers and occurrences (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 3; Magnacca
2007a, p. 173). Hylaeus anthracinus occurs in 15 total locations from
Hawaii Island, Maui, Kahoolawe, Molokai, and Oahu, but has not been
recently observed in its last known location on Lanai; H. assimulans is
found in 5 total locations on Maui, Lanai, and Kahoolawe, but has not
been observed recently on Oahu or Molokai; H. facilis is found in 2
total locations on Oahu and Molokai, but has not been observed recently
from Lanai and Maui; H. hilaris is known from one population on Molokai
and has not been observed recently from Lanai and Maui; H. kuakea is
known from one small area on Oahu; H. longiceps is known from 6 total
locations on Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu, but has not been collected
from several historical locations on those islands; and H. mana is
known from 3 locations on Oahu. Threats to these species include
agriculture and urban development; habitat destruction and modification
by nonnative ungulates, nonnative plants, fire, drought, and
hurricanes; the effects of climate change on habitat; loss of host
plants; and predation or competition by nonnative ants, wasps, and
bees. The

[[Page 58900]]

effects of these threats are compounded by the low numbers of
individuals and populations of the seven yellow-faced bees.
Hybridization
Natural hybridization is a frequent phenomenon in plants and can
lead to the creation of new species (Orians 2000, p. 1949), or
sometimes to the decline of species through genetic assimilation or
``introgression'' (Ellstrand 1992, pp. 77, 81; Levin et al. 1996, pp.
10-16; Rhymer and Simberloff 1996, p. 85). Hybridization, however, is
especially problematic for rare species that come into contact with
species that are abundant or more common (Rhymer and Simberloff 1996,
p. 83). We consider hybridization to be a threat to Microlepia strigosa
var. mauiensis because it may lead to extinction of the original
genotypically distinct variety, as noted by biologists' observations of
the Oahu occurrences (Kawelo 2009, in litt.). Only 15 to 20 individuals
on Oahu express the true phenotype of the variety (Ching 2011, in
litt.).
No Regeneration
Lack of, or low levels of, regeneration (reproduction and
recruitment) in the wild has been observed, and is a threat to seven
plants: Cyrtandra hematos, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp.
ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, and Nothocestrum
latifolium (see ``Low Numbers of Individuals and Populations,''
``Plants,'' above), proposed for listing in this rule. The reasons for
this are not well understood; however, seed predation by rats and
ungulates, inbreeding depression, and lack of pollinators are thought
to play a role (Wagner et al. 1999, p. 1451; Wood et al. 2007, p. 198;
HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer and Lorence 2010, pp. 20-21; PEPP 2010, p. 73;
PEPP 2014, p. 34).
Competition With Nonnative Invertebrates
There are 15 known species of nonnative bees in Hawaii (Snelling
2003, p. 342), including two nonnative Hylaeus species (Magnacca 2007b,
p. 188). Most nonnative bees inhabit areas dominated by nonnative
vegetation and do not compete with Hawaiian bees for foraging resources
(Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 13); however, the European honey bee (Apis
mellifera) is an exception. This social species is often very abundant
in areas with native vegetation and aggressively competes with Hylaeus
for nectar and pollen (Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Daly and Magnacca
2003, p. 13; Snelling 2003, p. 345). The European honey bee was first
introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1875, and currently inhabits
areas from sea level to the upper tree line boundary (Howarth 1985, p.
156). Individuals of the European honey bee have been observed foraging
on Hylaeus host plants such as Scaevola spp. and Sesbania tomentosa
(ohai) (Hopper et al. 1996, p. 9; Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 13;
Snelling 2003, p. 345). Although we lack information indicating
Hawaiian Hylaeus populations have declined because of competition with
the European honey bee for nectar and pollen, it does forage in Hylaeus
habitat and may exclude Hylaeus species (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188; Lach
2008, p. 155). Hylaeus species do not occur in native habitat where
there are large numbers of European honey bee individuals, but the
impact of smaller, more moderate populations is not known (Magnacca
2007b, p. 188). Nonnative, invasive bees are widely documented to
decrease nectar volumes and usurp native pollinators (Lach 2008, p.
155). There are also indications that populations of the European honey
bee are not as vulnerable as Hylaeus species to predation by nonnative
ant species (see ``C. Disease or Predation,'' above). Lach (2008, p.
155) observed that Hylaeus bees that regularly collect pollen from
flowers of the native tree Metrosideros polymorpha were entirely absent
from trees with flowers visited by the big-headed ant (Pheidole
megacephala), while visits by the European honey bee were not affected.
As a result, Lach (2008, p. 155) concluded that the European honey bee
may have a competitive advantage over Hylaeus species, as it is not
excluded by the big-headed ant. Other nonnative bees found in areas of
native vegetation and overlapping with native Hylaeus population sites
include Ceratina species (carpenter bees), Hylaeus albonitens
(Australian colletid bees), H. strenuus (NCN), and Lasioglossum
impavidum (NCN) (Magnacca 2007b, p. 188; Magnacca and King 2013, pp.
19-22). While it has been suggested these nonnative bees may impact
native Hylaeus bees through competition for pollen base on their
similar size and flower preferences, there is no information that
demonstrates these nonnative bees forage on Hylaeus host plants
(Magnacca 2007b, p. 188; Magnacca and King 2013, pp. 19-22). It has
also been suggested parasitoid wasps may compete for nectar with native
Hylaeus species; however, information demonstrating nonnative
parasitoid wasps forage on the same host plants as H. anthracinus, H.
assimulans, H. facilis, H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H. longiceps, and H.
mana is unavailable (Daly and Magnacca 2003, p. 10).
Loss of Host Plants Through Competition
The seven yellow-faced bees are dependent upon native flowering
plants for their food resources, pollen and nectar, and for nesting
sites. Introduced invertebrates are a threat to yellow-faced bees, by
outcompeting native Hylaeus for use of host plants for pollen, nectar,
and nesting sites. This effect is compounded by the impacts of
nonnative ungulates on native host plants for Hylaeus (see Factors A
and C). Nonnative plants are a threat to the seven yellow-faced bees
and their host plants because they: (1) Degrade habitat and outcompete
native plants; (2) can increase the intensity, extent, and frequency of
fire, converting native shrubland and forest to land dominated by
nonnative grasses; and (3) may cause the loss of the native host plants
upon which the yellow-faced bees depend (Factor A). Drought, fire, and
water extraction may lead to loss of host plants within the known
ranges of populations of yellow-faced bees, and are discussed in ``A.
The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of
Its Habitat or Range,'' above.
Climate Change
Our analyses under the Act include consideration of ongoing and
projected changes in climate. The terms ``climate'' and ``climate
change'' are defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). ``Climate'' refers to the mean and variability of different
types of weather conditions over time, with 30 years being a typical
period for such measurements, although shorter or longer periods also
may be used (IPCC 2013, p. 1450). The term ``climate change'' thus
refers to a change in the mean or variability of one or more measures
of climate (e.g., temperature or precipitation) that persists for an
extended period, typically decades or longer, whether the change is due
to natural variability, human activity, or both (IPCC 2013, p. 1450).
Various types of changes in climate can have direct or indirect effects
on species. These effects may be positive, neutral, or negative and
they may change over time, depending on the species and other relevant
considerations, such as the effects of interactions of climate with
other variables (e.g., habitat fragmentation) (IPCC 2007, pp. 8-14, 18-
19). In our analyses, we use our expert judgment to weigh relevant
information, including

[[Page 58901]]

uncertainty, in our consideration of various aspects of climate change.
Climate change will be a particular challenge for the conservation
of biodiversity because the introduction and interaction of additional
stressors may push species beyond their ability to survive (Lovejoy et
al. 2005, pp. 325-326). The synergistic implications of climate change
and habitat fragmentation are the most threatening facets of climate
change for biodiversity (Hannah et al. 2005, p. 4). The magnitude and
intensity of the impacts of global climate change and increasing
temperatures on native Hawaiian ecosystems are the subjects of active
research.
The average ambient air temperature (at sea level) is projected to
increase globally by about 4.1 degrees Fahrenheit ([deg]F) (2.3
[deg]Celsius (C)) with a range of 2.7 [deg]F to 6.7 [deg]F (1.5 [deg]C
to 3.7 [deg]C) by 2100 worldwide (IPCC 2007, in litt.). These changes
would increase the monthly average temperature of the Hawaiian Islands
from the current value of 74 [deg]F (23.3 [deg]C) to between 77 [deg]F
to 86 [deg]F (25 [deg]C to 30 [deg]C). Temperature has been rising over
the last 100 years, with the greatest increase occurring after 1975
(Alexander et al. 2006, pp. 1-22; Giambelluca et al. 2008, p. 1). On
the main Hawaiian Islands, predicted changes associated with increases
in temperature include a shift in vegetation zones upslope, a similar
shift in animal species' ranges, changes in mean precipitation with
unpredictable effects on local environments, increased occurrence of
drought cycles, and increases in the intensity and numbers of
hurricanes (Loope and Giambelluca 1998, pp. 514-515; U.S. Global Change
Research Program (US-GCRP) 2009, pp. 10, 12, 17-18, 32-33).
The forecast of changes in precipitation is highly uncertain
because it depends, in part, on how the El Ni[ntilde]o-La Ni[ntilde]a
weather cycle (a disruption of the ocean atmospheric system in the
tropical Pacific having important global consequences for weather and
climate) might change (State of Hawaii 1998, pp. 2-10). However, over
the past 100 years, the Hawaiian Islands have experienced an annual
decline in precipitation of just over 9 percent (US-NSTC 2008, p. 61)
and a steady decline of about 15 percent over the last 15 to 20 years
(Chu and Chen 2005, pp. 4802-4803; Diaz et al. 2006, pp. 1-3). Models
of future rainfall downscaled for Hawaii generally project increasingly
wet windward slopes and mild to extreme drying of leeward areas in
particular by the middle and end of the 21st century (Timm and Diaz
2009, p. 4262; Elison Timm et al. 2015, pp. 95, 103-105). Stream-gauge
data provide evidence of a long-term decrease in precipitation and
stream flow on the Hawaiian Islands (Oki 2004, p. 4). This long-term
drying trend, coupled with existing ditch diversions and periodic El
Ni[ntilde]o-caused drying events, has created a pattern of severe and
persistent stream dewatering events (Polhemus 2008, in litt., p. 26).
Altered seasonal moisture regimes can have negative impacts on plant
growth cycles and overall negative impacts on native ecosystems (US-
GCRP 2009, pp. 32-33). Long periods of decline in annual precipitation
result in a reduction of moisture availability, an increase in drought
frequency and intensity, and a self-perpetuating cycle of nonnative
plant invasion, fire, and erosion (US-GCRP 2009, pp. 32-33; Warren
2011, pp. 221-226) (see ``Habitat Destruction and Modification by
Fire,'' above). Overall, the projected increase in variance of
precipitation events will change patterns of water availability for the
species (Parmesan and Matthews 2006, p. 340), changes that point to
changes in plant communities as a consequence over the coming decades.
Tropical cyclone frequency and intensity are projected to change as
a result of climate change over the next 100 to 200 years (Vecchi and
Soden 2007, pp. 1068-1069, Figures 2 and 3; Emanuel et al. 2008, p.
360, Figure 8; Yu et al. 2010, p. 1371, Figure 14). In the central
Pacific, modeling projects an increase of up to two additional tropical
cyclones per year in the main Hawaiian Islands by 2100 (Murakami et al.
2013, p. 2, Figure 1d). In general, tropical cyclones with the
intensities of hurricanes have been an uncommon occurrence in the
Hawaiian Islands. From the 1800s until 1949, hurricanes were only
rarely reported from ships in the area. Between 1950 and 1997, 22
hurricanes passed near or over the Hawaiian Islands, and 5 of these
caused serious damage (Businger 1998). A recent study shows that, with
a possible shift in the path of the subtropical jet stream northward,
away from Hawaii, more storms will be able to approach and reach the
Hawaiian Islands from an easterly direction, with Hurricane Iselle in
2014 being an example (Murakami et al. 2015, p. 751).
As described above (see ``Climate change vulnerability assessment
for Hawaiian plants,'' above; Table 3), 28 of the 39 plant species in
this proposal were included in the recent analysis of the vulnerability
of Hawaiian plants to climate change conducted by Fortini et al. (2013,
134 pp.). All 28 species scored as moderately to highly vulnerable, as
did most other species in the analysis that already are considered to
be of conservation concern (because they face multiple non-climate
threats) (Fortini et al. 2013, pp. 25, 37). The specific impacts of
climate change effects on the habitat, biology, and ecology of
individual species are largely unknown and remain a subject of study.
However, in the assessment of more than 1,000 Hawaiian plants,
including 319 already listed as threatened or endangered, a strong
relationship emerged between climate vulnerability scores and current
threats and conservation status (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 5). Therefore,
we anticipate that the other 11 plant species proposed for listing are
likely to be similarly vulnerable to climate change effects. The
projected landcape- or island-scale changes in temperature and
precipitation, as well as the potentially catatrophic impacts of
projected increases in storm frequency and severity, also point to
likely adverse impacts of climate change on all 10 of the animal
species considered in this proposal because they rely on abiotic
conditions, such as water temperature, or habitat elements, such as
host plants, likely to be substantively altered by climate change.
In summary, based on the best available information, we conclude
that changes in environmental conditions that result from projected
climate change are likely to negatively affect all 49 species we are
proposing to list as endangered in this rule. Climate change effects,
including increased inter-annual variability of ambient temperature,
precipitation, and hurricanes, are likely to impose additional stresses
on all 11 ecosystems and all 49 species, thus exacerbating current
threats to these species. The probability of a species going extinct as
a result of these effects increases when its range is restricted, its
habitat decreases, and its abundance declines (IPCC 2014, pp. 14-15).
These 49 species all persist with small population sizes and highly
restricted or fragmented ranges. They thus face increased risk from
stochastic events such as hurricanes, which can extinguish an important
proportion of the remaining individuals, and from environmental changes
because these species may lack ecological or genetic adaptive capacity
(Fortini et al. 2013, pp. 3-5).
In addition to indirect impacts resulting from changes in habitat
and disturbance regimes, these species may experience direct impacts of
climate change, for example, physiological stress in the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly caused by increased stream temperatures to which the
species is not adapted (Pounds et al. 1999, pp. 611-612; Still et al.
1999, p. 610; Benning et

[[Page 58902]]

al. 2002, pp. 14246, 14248). These aspects of climate change and their
impacts on native species and ecosystems may be exacerbated by human
demand on Hawaii's natural resources; for example, decreased
availability of fresh water will magnify the impact of human water
consumption on Hawaii's natural streams and reservoirs (Giambelluca et
al. 1991, p. v). Although we do not consider climate change to be a
current threat, we anticipate that climate change impacts are likely to
contribute to the multiple stressors affecting the status of all of
these species, and are likely to become a threat to most or all of them
in the future.
Summary of Factor E
We consider the threat from artificial lighting and structures to
be an ongoing threat to the band-rumped storm-petrel in Hawaii,
proposed for listing in this rule, because these threats can cause
injury and mortality, resulting in a loss of breeding individuals and
juveniles, and this threat is expected to continue into the future. The
potential threats of injury or mortality, or loss of food sources,
caused by the activities of commercial fisheries, and injury or
mortality from ingestion of plastics and marine debris, can contribute
to further decline in the Hawaiian population of the band-rumped storm-
petrel.
We consider the threats from recreational use of, and dumping of
trash and introduction of nonnative fish into, the pools that support
the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris hawaiana proposed for listing in
this rule to be threats that have the potential to occur at any time,
although their occurrence is not predictable. The use of anchialine
pools for dumping of trash can lead to accelerated sedimentation in the
pool, exacerbating conditions leading to its senescence. Nonnative fish
prey on, or outcompete, native herbivorous anchialine pool shrimp that
serve as the prey base for predatory species of anchialine pool shrimp,
and may also prey on Procaris hawaiana. Changing the anchialine pool
system by dumping of trash, introduction of nonnative fish, and
sedimentation may also affect habitat for the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly.
We consider the impacts from limited numbers of individuals and
populations to be an ongoing threat to all 39 plant species proposed
for listing in this rule, and especially for the following 19 plants:
Asplenium diellaciniatum, Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyperus neokunthianus,
Cyrtandra hematos, Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla,
Gardenia remyi, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Joinvillea
ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana,
Lepidium orbiculare, Nothocestrum latifolium, Phyllostegia brevidens,
P. helleri, Pritchardia bakeri, Santalum involutum, Stenogyne kaalae
ssp. sherffii, and Wikstroemia skottsbergiana. Low numbers and small
occurrences of these plants result in greater vulnerability to
stochastic events and can result in reduced levels of genetic
variability leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental
changes. Under these circumstances, the probability of long-term
persistence is diminished, potentially resulting in extirpation and
extinction. This threat applies to the entire range of each of these
species.
We also consider the impacts from limited numbers of individuals
and populations to be an ongoing threat to all 10 animal species
proposed for listing in this rule.
The threat to the band-rumped storm-petrel from limited numbers and
populations is ongoing and is expected to continue into the future.
We also consider the impacts from limited numbers of individuals
and populations to be an ongoing threat to the orangeblack Hawaiian
damselfly, the anchialine pool shrimp Procaris hawaiana, and to the
yellow-faced bees Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. facilis, H.
hilaris, H. kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana. The threat from limited
numbers of individuals and populations is ongoing and is expected to
continue into the future because: (1) A single catastrophic event may
result in extirpation of remaining populations and extinction of these
species; (2) species with few known occurrences are less resilient to
threats that might otherwise have a relatively minor impact (on widely-
distributed species); (3) these species may experience reduced
reproductive vigor due to inbreeding depression; and (4) they may
experience reduced levels of genetic variability leading to diminished
capacity to adapt to environmental changes, thereby lessening the
probability of its long-term persistence.
The threat from hybridization is an unpredictable but ongoing
threat to Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, as has been observed at
occurrences on Oahu.
We consider the threat to Cyanea kauaulaensis, Cyrtandra hematos,
Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia
lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, and Nothocestrum latifolium from lack
of regeneration to be ongoing to continue into the future because the
reasons for the lack of recruitment in the wild are unknown and
uncontrolled, and any competition from nonnative plants or habitat
modification by ungulates or fire, or other threats, could lead to the
extirpation of these species.
We consider the threat of competition with invertebrates an ongoing
threat to the yellow-faced bees, Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H.
facilis, H. hilaris, H. kuakea, H. longiceps, and H. mana, proposed for
listing in this rule. Nonnative wasps and bees are aggressive and can
prevent use of the native host plants required for food and nesting by
all seven yellow-faced bees.
The projected effects of increasing temperature and other aspects
of climate change on the 49 species may be direct, such as
physiological stress caused by increased temperature or lack of
moisture, or indirect, such as the modification or destruction of
habitat, increased competition by nonnative species, and changes in
disturbance regimes that lead to changes in habitat (e.g., fire,
drought, flooding, and hurricanes). The specific and cumulative effects
of climate change on each of these 49 species are presently unknown,
but we anticipate that these effects, if realized, will exacerbate the
current threats to these species and become a threat to most or all of
them in the future.

Proposed Determination for 49 Species

Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), and its implementing
regulations at 50 CFR part 424, set forth the procedures for adding
species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and
Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Act, we may list a species based
on: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) oOverutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C)
dDisease or predation; (D) tThe inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms; or (E) oOther natural or manmade factors affecting its
continued existence. Listing actions may be warranted based on any of
the above threat factors, singly or in combination.
We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial
information available regarding the past, present, and future threats
to each of the 49 species proposed for listing. We find that all of
these species face threats that are ongoing and are expected to
continue into the future throughout their ranges. Habitat destruction
and modification by agriculture and urban development is a threat to
four plants (Nothocestrum latifolium, Portulaca villosa,
Pseudognaphalium

[[Page 58903]]

sandwicensium var. molokaiense, and Solanum nelsonii) and six animals
(the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the anchialine pool shrimp
(Procaris hawaiana), Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans, H. hilaris,
and H. longiceps) (Factor A). Habitat destruction and modification by
nonnative feral ungulates or nonnative plants poses a threat to 46 of
the 49 species (all except for Cyanea kauaulaensis, Hypolepis
hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, and the anchialine pool shrimp) (Factor A).
Fifteen of the plant species (Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca hawaiiensis,
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Labordia lorenciana, Nothocestrum
latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia stachyoides, Portulaca
villosa, Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Santalum
involutum, Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, S. macrophyllus,
and Solanum nelsonii), the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all
seven yellow-faced bees, are threatened by habitat destruction and
modification from fire. Nineteen of the plant species (Cyanea
kauaulaensis, Cyclosorus boydiae, Deparia kaalaana, Gardenia remyi,
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua fluviatilis, K. huapuensis,
Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, Ochrosia haleakalae,
Phyllostegia brevidens, P. helleri, P. stachyoides, Portulaca villosa,
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis,
R. mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, and Schiedea pubescens, and
Solanum nelsonii) and the band-rumped storm-petrel are threatened by
the destruction and modification of their habitats from either singly
or in combination: landslides, rockfalls, treefalls, or flooding
(Factor A). Habitat loss or degradation, or loss of host plants, or
mortality, and water extraction, due to drought is a threat to Deparia
kaalaana, Huperzia stemmermanniae, Phyllostegia stacyoides, Ranunculus
hawaiensis, R. mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Schiedea pubescens,
Sicyos lanceoloideus, and Solanum nelsonii; and to the orangeblack
Hawaiian damselfly; and all seven yellow-faced bees (Factor A and
Factor E). Habitat loss and mortality resulting from hurricanes is a
threat to the plant Pritchardia bakeri, the band-rumped storm-petrel,
the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, and all seven yellow-faced bees
(Factor A). Overcollection for commercial purposes poses a threat to
the anchialine pool shrimp, Procaris hawaiana (Factor B). Predation and
herbivory is an ongoing threat to 33 of the 39 plant species (by feral
pigs, goats, axis deer, black-tailed deer, cattle, sheep and mouflon,
rats, and slugs; see Table 3); to the band-rumped storm petrel (by
owls, cats, rats, and mongoose); to the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly
(by backswimmers); and to the seven yellow-faced bees (by ants and
wasps) (Factor C). Predation by nonnative fish is a potential threat to
the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly and the anchialine pool shrimp
(Factor C). The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms (i.e.,
inadequate protection of habitat and inadequate protection from the
introduction of nonnative species) poses an ongoing threat to all 49
species (Factor D). Injury and mortality caused by artificial lighting
and structures are ongoing threats to the band-rumped storm-petrel
(Factor E). There are ongoing threats to all 49 species due to factors
associated with low numbers of individuals and populations (Factor E).
The threat of low numbers to seven plants (Cyanea kauaulaensis,
Cyrtandra hematos, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens,
Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium orbiculare, and Nothocestrum latifolium)
is exacerbated by lack of regeneration in the wild (Factor E).
Recreational use of, and dumping of trash and nonnative fish into,
anchialine pools is a threat to the anchialine pool shrimp and also to
the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly that may use that habitat (Factor
E). Competition by ants, wasps, and bees for the food and nesting
resources, including loss of native host plants, is a threat to all
seven yellow-faced bees (Factor E). These threats are exacerbated by
these species' inherent vulnerability to extinction from stochastic
events at any time because of their endemism, low numbers of
individuals and populations, and restricted habitats. In addition, we
are concerned about the projected effects of rising temperature and
other aspects of climate change on all 49 species (Factor E). We
recognize that limited information exists on the exact nature of
impacts that these species may experience, but we anticipate that
climate change effects are likely to exacerbate the current threats to
these species and may become a threat to most of all of them in the
future.
The Act defines an endangered species as any species that is ``in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range'' and a threatened species as any species ``that is likely to
become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range
within the foreseeable future.'' We find that each of the endemic
Hawaiian species and the Hawaiian DPS of band-rumped storm petrel is
presently in danger of extinction throughout its entire range, based on
the immediacy, severity, and scope of the threats described above.
Therefore, on the basis of the best available scientific and commercial
information, we propose to list the following 49 species as endangered
in accordance with sections 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act: the plants
Asplenium diellaciniatum, Calamagrostis expansa, Cyanea kauaulaensis,
Cyclosorus boydiae, Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra hematos, Deparia
kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca
hawaiiensis, Gardenia remyi, Huperzia stemmermanniae, Hypolepis
hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua
fluviatilis, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium
orbiculare, Microlepia strigosa var. mauiensis, Myrsine fosbergii,
Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens,
Phyllostegia helleri, Phyllostegia stachyoides, Portulaca villosa,
Pritchardia bakeri, Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium var. molokaiense,
Ranunculus hawaiensis, Ranunculus mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis,
Santalum involutum, Schiedea diffusa ssp. diffusa, Schiedea pubescens,
Sicyos lanceoloideus, Sicyos macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, Stenogyne
kaalae ssp. sherffii, and Wikstroemia skottsbergiana; and the following
animals: the band-rumped storm-petrel (Oceanodroma castro), the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Megalagrion xanthomelas), the
anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris hawaiana), and the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus, Hylaeus assimulans, Hylaeus facilis, Hylaeus
hilaris, Hylaeus kuakea, Hylaeus longiceps, and Hylaeus mana.
Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species may
warrant listing if it is in danger of extinction or likely to become so
throughout all or a significant portion of its range (SPR). Under our
SPR policy (79 FR 37578, July 1, 2014), if a species is endangered or
threatened throughout a significant portion of its range and the
population in that significant portion is a valid DPS, we will list the
DPS rather than the entire taxonomic species or subspecies. We have
determined that the Hawaii population of the band-rumped storm-petrel
is a valid DPS, and we proposed to list that DPS. Each of the other 48
species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands proposed for listing in this
rule is highly restricted in its range, and the threats occur
throughout its range. Therefore, we assessed the status of each species

[[Page 58904]]

throughout its entire range. In each case, the threats to the survival
of these species occur throughout the species' range and are not
restricted to any particular portion of that range. Accordingly, our
assessment and proposed determination applies to each species
throughout its entire range. Likewise, we assessed the status of the
Hawaii DPS of the band-rumped storm petrel throughout the range of the
DPS and have determined that the threats occur throughout the DPS and
are not restricted to any particular portion of the DPS. Because we
have determined that these 48 species and one DPS are endangered
throughout all of their ranges, no portion of their ranges can be
``significant'' for purposes of the definitions of ``endangered
species'' and ``threatened species.'' See the Final Policy on
Interpretation of the Phrase ``Significant Portion of Its Range'' in
the Endangered Species Act's Definitions of ``Endangered Species'' and
``Threatened Species'' (79 FR 37578, July 1, 2014).

Available Conservation Measures

Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions,
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain
activities. Recognition through listing results in public awareness and
conservation by Federal, State, and local agencies; private
organizations; and individuals. The Act encourages cooperation with the
States and other countries and calls for recovery actions to be carried
out for listed species. The protection required by Federal agencies and
the prohibitions against certain activities involving listed animals
and plants are discussed, in part, below.
The primary purpose of the Act is the conservation of endangered
and threatened species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. The
ultimate goal of such conservation efforts is the recovery of these
listed species, so that they no longer need the protective measures of
the Act. Subsection 4(f) of the Act calls for the Service to develop
and implement recovery plans for the conservation of endangered and
threatened species. The recovery planning process involves the
identification of actions that are necessary to halt or reverse the
species' decline by addressing the threats to its survival and
recovery. The goal of this process is to restore listed species to a
point where they are secure, self-sustaining, and functioning
components of their ecosystems.
Recovery planning includes the development of a recovery outline
shortly after a species is listed and preparation of a draft and final
recovery plan. The recovery outline guides the immediate implementation
of urgent recovery actions and describes the process to be used to
develop a recovery plan. Revisions of the plan may be done to address
continuing or new threats to the species, as new substantive
information becomes available. The recovery plan also identifies
recovery criteria for review of when a species may be ready for
downlisting or delisting, and methods for monitoring recovery progress.
Recovery plans also establish a framework for agencies to coordinate
their recovery efforts and provide estimates of the cost of
implementing recovery tasks. Recovery teams (comprised of species
experts, Federal and State agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and
stakeholders) are often established to develop recovery plans. When
completed, the recovery outlines, draft recovery plans, and the final
recovery plans will be available on our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/endangered), or from our Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Implementation of recovery actions generally requires the
participation of a broad range of partners, including other Federal
agencies, States, nongovernmental organizations, businesses, and
private landowners. Examples of recovery actions include habitat
restoration (e.g., restoration of native vegetation), research, captive
propagation and reintroduction, and outreach and education. The
recovery of many listed species cannot be accomplished solely on
Federal lands because their range may occur primarily or solely on non-
Federal lands. To achieve recovery of these species requires
cooperative conservation efforts on private and State lands.
If these species are listed, funding for recovery actions will be
available from a variety of sources, including Federal budgets, State
programs, and cost share grants for non-Federal landowners, the
academic community, and nongovernmental organizations. In addition,
pursuant to section 6 of the Act, the State of Hawaii would be eligible
for Federal funds to implement management actions that promote the
protection or recovery of the 49 species. Information on our grant
programs that are available to aid species recovery can be found at:
http://www.fws.gov/grants.
Although these species are only proposed for listing under the Act
at this time, please let us know if you are interested in participating
in recovery efforts for these species. Additionally, we invite you to
submit any new information on these species whenever it becomes
available and any information you may have for recovery planning
purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to
evaluate their actions with respect to any species that is proposed or
listed as endangered or threatened with respect to its critical
habitat, if any is designated. Regulations implementing this
interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR
part 402. Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires Federal agencies to
confer with the Service on any action that is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of a species proposed for listing or result in
destruction or adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a
species is listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires
Federal agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or
carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
species or destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a
Federal action may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the
responsible Federal agency must enter into consultation with the
Service.
For the 49 plants and animals proposed for listing as endangered
species in this rule, Federal agency actions that may require
consultation as described in the preceding paragraph include, but are
not limited to, actions within the jurisdiction of the Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and branches of the
Department of Defense (DOD). Examples of these types of actions include
activities funded or authorized under the Farm Bill Program,
Environmental Qualitiy Incentives Program, Ground and Surface Water
Conservation Program, Clean Water Act (33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.),
Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program, and DOD construction activities
related to training or other military missions.
The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to endangered wildlife.
The prohibitions of section 9(a)(1) of the Act, codified at 50 CFR
17.21, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of
the United States to take (which includes harass, harm, pursue, hunt,
shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect; or to attempt any of
these) endangered wildlife within the United States or the high seas.
In addition, it is unlawful to import; export; deliver, receive, carry,
transport, or ship in interstate or foreign

[[Page 58905]]

commerce in the course of commercial activity; or sell or offer for
sale in interstate or foreign commerce any listed species. It is also
illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any such
wildlife that has been taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply to
employees of the Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service, other
Federal land management agencies, and State conservation agencies.
We may issue permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered wildlife under certain circumstances. Regulations
governing permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22. With regard to
endangered wildlife, a permit must be issued for the following
purposes: For scientific purposes, to enhance the propagation or
survival of the species, and for incidental take in connection with
otherwise lawful activities. There are also certain statutory
exemptions from the prohibitions, which are found in sections 9 and 10
of the Act.
With respect to endangered plants, prohibitions outlined at 50 CFR
17.61 make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the
United States to import or export, transport in interstate or foreign
commerce in the course of a commercial activity, sell or offer for sale
in interstate or foreign commerce, or to remove and reduce to
possession any such plant species from areas under Federal
jurisdiction. In addition, for endangered plants, the Act prohibits
malicious damage or destruction of any such species on any area under
Federal jurisdiction, and the removal, cutting, digging up, or damaging
or destroying of any such species on any other area in knowing
violation of any State law or regulation, or in the course of any
violation of a State criminal trespass law. Exceptions to these
prohibitions are outlined in 50 CFR 17.62. The Hawaii ESA prohibits
take of plants; however, the Hawaii ESA affords no protection of
habitat (HRS 195D-4(a)).
We may issue permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered plants under certain circumstances. Regulations
governing permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.62. With regard to
endangered plants, the Service may issue a permit authorizing any
activity otherwise prohibited by 50 CFR 17.61 for scientific purposes
or for enhancing the propagation or survival of endangered plants.
It is our policy, as published in the Federal Register on July 1,
1994 (59 FR 34272), to identify to the maximum extent practicable at
the time a species is listed, those activities that would or would not
constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act. The intent of this
policy is to increase public awareness of the effect of a proposed
listing on proposed and ongoing activities within the range of species
proposed for listing. Based on the best available information, the
following activites may potentially result in a violation of section 9
of the Act, this list is not comprehensive:
(1) Unauthorized collecting, handling, possessing, selling,
delivering, carrying, or transporting of the species, including import
or export across State lines and international boundaries, except for
properly documented antique specimens of these taxa at least 100 years
old, as defined by section 10(h)(1) of the Act.
(2) Activities that take or harm the band-rumped storm-petrel, the
orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly, the anchialine pool shrimp (Procaris
hawaiana), and the seven yellow-faced bees by causing significant
habitat modification or degradation such that it causes actual injury
by significantly impairing essential behavior patterns. This may
include introduction of nonnative species that compete with or prey
upon the 10 animal species or the unauthorized release of biological
control agents that attack the life stage of any of these 10 species.
(3) Damaging or destroying any of the 39 plant species in violation
of the Hawaii State law prohibiting the take of listed species.
(4) Introduction of nonnative species that compete with or prey
upon the 29 49 species proposed for listing, such as the introduction
of competing, nonnative plants or animals to the State of Hawaii.
(5) The unauthorized release of biological control agents that
attack any life stage of these 49 species.
Questions regarding whether specific activities would constitute a
violation of section 9 of the Act should be directed to the Pacific
Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).

Critical Habitat

Section 3(5)(A) of the Act defines critical habitat as (i) the
specific areas within the geographical area occupied by the species, at
the time it is listed . . . on which are found those physical or
biological features (I) essential to the conservation of the species
and (II) which may require special management considerations or
protection; and (ii) specific areas outside the geographical area
occupied by the species at the time it is listed upon a determination
by the Secretary that such areas are essential for the conservation of
the species. Section 3(3) of the Act defines conservation as to use and
the use of all methods and procedures which are necessary to bring any
endangered species or threatened species to the point at which the
measures provided pursuant to the Act are no longer necessary.
Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as amended, and implementing
regulations (50 CFR 424.12), require that, to the maximum extent
prudent and determinable, the Secretary will designate critical habitat
at the time the species is determined to be an endangered or threatened
species. Our regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)) state that the
designation of critical habitat is not prudent when one or both of the
following situations exist:
(1) The species is threatened by taking or other human activity,
and identification of critical habitat can be expected to increase the
degree of threat to the species, or
(2) Such designation of critical habitat would not be beneficial to
the species.
Besides the unpermitted collection of the anchialine pool shrimp
Procaris hawaiana for trade for the aquarium hobby market, we do not
know of any imminent threat of take attributed to collection or
vandalism under Factor B for these plant and animal species. The
available information does not indicate that identification and mapping
of critical habitat is likely to increase the threat of collection for
the pool shrimp or initiate any threat of collection or vandalism for
any of the other 48 species proposed for lising in this rule.
Therefore, in the absence of finding that the designation of critical
habitat would increase threats to a species, if there are any benefits
to a critical habitat designation, a finding that designation is
prudent is warranted. Here, the potential benefits of designation
include: (1) Triggering consultation under section 7 of the Act, in new
areas for actions in which there may be a Federal nexus where it would
not otherwise occur because, for example, it is unoccupied; (2)
focusing conservation activities on the most essential features and
areas; (3) providing educational benefits to State or county
governments or private entities; and (4) preventing people from causing
inadvertent harm to these species.
Because we have determined that the designation of critical habitat
will not likely increase the degree of threat to the species and may
provide some measure of benefit, we determine that designation of
critical habitat is prudent for all 49 species proposed for listing in
this rule.
Our regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(2)) further state that critical
habitat is not

[[Page 58906]]

determinable when one or both of the following situations exists: (1)
Information sufficient to perform required analysis of the impacts of
the designation is lacking; or (2) the biological needs of the species
are not sufficiently well known to permit identification of an area as
critical habitat.
Delineation of critical habitat requires identification of the
physical and biological features, within the geographical area occupied
by the species and areas outside the geographical area occupied by the
species, that are essential for their conservation. Information
regarding these 49 species' life functions is complex, and complete
data are lacking for many of them. We require additional time to
analyze the best available scientific data in order to identify
specific areas appropriate for critical habitat designation and to
prepare and develop a proposed rule. Accordingly, we find designation
of critical habitat to be ``not determinable'' at this time.

Required Determinations

Clarity of the Rule

We are required by Executive Orders 12866 and 12988 and by the
Presidential Memorandum of June 1, 1998, to write all rules in plain
language. This means that each rule we publish must:
(1) Be logically organized;
(2) Use the active voice to address readers directly;
(3) Use clear language rather than jargon;
(4) Be divided into short sections and sentences; and
(5) Use lists and tables wherever possible.
If you feel that we have not met these requirements, send us
comments by one of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES section. To
better help us revise this proposed rule, your comments should be as
specific as possible. For example, you should tell us the numbers of
the sections or paragraphs that are unclearly written, which sections
or sentences are too long, the sections where you feel lists or tables
would be useful, etc.

National Environmental Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)

We have determined that environmental assessments and environmental
impact statements, as defined under the authority of the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be
prepared in connection with listing a species as an endangered or
threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. We published a
notice outlining our reasons for this determination in the Federal
Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).

References Cited

A complete list of references cited in this rulemaking is available
on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov and upon request from the
Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
CONTACT).

Authors

The primary authors of this proposed rule are the staff members of
the Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office.

List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17

Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.

Proposed Regulation Promulgation

Accordingly, we propose to amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter
I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth below:

PART 17--[AMENDED]

0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:

Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 1531-1544; and 4201-4245, unless
otherwise noted.

0
2. Amend Sec. 17.11(h), the List of Endangered and Threatened
Wildlife, as follows:
0
a. By adding entries an entry for ``Storm-petrel, band-rumped''
(Oceanodroma castro) in alphabetical order under BIRDS; and
b. By adding entries for ``Bee, yellow-faced'' (Hylaeus
anthracinus), ``Bee, yellow-faced'' (Hylaeus assimulans), ``Bee,
yellow-faced'' (Hylaeus facilis), ``Bee, yellow-faced'' (Hylaeus
hilaris), ``Bee, yellow-faced'' (Hylaeus kuakea), ``Bee, yellow-faced''
(Hylaeus longiceps), and ``Bee, yellow-faced'' (Hylaeus mana), and
``Damselfly, orangeblack Hawaiian'' (Megalagrion xanthomelas) in
alphabetical order under INSECTS; and
c. By adding an entry for ``Shrimp, anchialine pool'' (Procaris
hawaiana), in alphabetical order under CRUSTACEANS.
The additions read as follows:

Sec. 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife.

* * * * *
(h) * * *

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species Vertebrate
-------------------------------------------------------- population where Critical Special
Historic range endangered or Status When listed habitat rules
Common name Scientific name threatened
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

* * * * * * *
BIRDS

* * * * * * *
Storm-petrel, band-rumped........ Oceanodroma castro.. U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
INSECTS
Bee, yellow-faced................ Hylaeus anthracinus. U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA
Bee, yellow-faced................ Hylaeus assimulans.. U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA
Bee, yellow-faced................ Hylaeus facilis..... U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA
Bee, yellow-faced................ Hylaeus hilaris..... U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA
Bee, yellow-faced................ Hylaeus kuakea...... U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA
Bee, yellow-faced................ Hylaeus longiceps... U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA
Bee, yellow-faced................ Hylaeus mana........ U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA

[[Page 58907]]

* * * * * * *
Damselfly, orangeblack Hawaiian.. Megalagrion U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA
xanthomelas.

* * * * * * *
CRUSTACEANS

* * * * * * *
Shrimp, anchialine pool.......... Procaris hawaiana... U.S.A. (HI)........ Entire............. E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0
3. Amend Sec. 17.12(h), the List of Endangered and Threatened Plants,
as follows:
0
a. By adding entries for Calamagrostis expansa, Cyanea kauaulaensis,
Cyperus neokunthianus, Cyrtandra hematos, Exocarpos menziesii, Festuca
hawaiiensis, Gardenia remyi, Joinvillea ascendens ssp. ascendens, Kadua
fluviatilis, Kadua haupuensis, Labordia lorenciana, Lepidium
orbiculare, Myrsine fosbergii, Nothocestrum latifolium, Ochrosia
haleakalae, Phyllostegia brevidens, Phyllostegia helleri, Phyllostegia
stachyoides, Portulaca villosa, Pritchardia bakeri, Pseudognaphalium
sandwicensium var. molokaiense, Ranunculus hawaiensis, Ranunculus
mauiensis, Sanicula sandwicensis, Santalum involutum, Schiedea diffusa
ssp. diffusa, Schiedea pubescens, Sicyos lanceoloideus, Sicyos
macrophyllus, Solanum nelsonii, Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii, and
Wikstroemia skottsbergiana in alphabetical order under FLOWERING
PLANTS; and
0
b. By adding entries for Asplenium diellaciniatum, Cyclosorus boydiae,
Deparia kaalaana, Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla, Huperzia
stemmermanniae, Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. mauiensis, and Microlepia
strigosa var. mauiensis in alphabetical order under FERNS AND ALLIES.
The additions read as follows:

Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.

* * * * *
(h) * * *

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species
-------------------------------------------------------- Historic range Family Status When listed Critical Special
Scientific name Common name habitat rules
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Flowering Plants

* * * * * * *
Calamagrostis expansa............ Maui reedgrass...... U.S.A. (HI)........ Poaceae............ E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Cyanea kauaulaensis.............. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Campanulaceae...... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Cyperus neokunthianus............ None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Cyperaceae......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Cyrtandra hematos................ Haiwale............. U.S.A. (HI)........ Gesneriaceae....... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Exocarpos menziesii.............. Heau................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Santalaceae........ E ........... NA NA
Festuca hawaiiensis.............. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Poaceae............ E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Gardenia remyi................... Nanu................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Rubiaceae.......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Joinvillea ascendens ssp. Ohe................. U.S.A. (HI)........ Joinvilleaceae..... E ........... NA NA
ascendens.

* * * * * * *
Kadua fluviatilis................ Kamapuaa............ U.S.A. (HI)........ Rubiaceae.......... E ........... NA NA
Kadua haupuensis................. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Rubiaceae.......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Labordia lorenciana.............. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Loganiaceae........ E ........... NA NA

[[Page 58908]]

* * * * * * *
Lepidium orbiculare.............. Anaunau............. U.S.A. (HI)........ Brassicaceae....... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Myrsine fosbergii................ Kolea............... U.S.A. (HI)........ Myrsinaceae........ E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Nothocestrum latifolium.......... Aiea................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Solanaceae......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Ochrosia haleakalae.............. Holei............... U.S.A. (HI)........ Apocynaceae........ E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Phyllostegia brevidens........... None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Lamiaceae.......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Phyllostegia helleri............. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Lamiaceae.......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Phyllostegia stachyoides......... None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Lamiaceae.......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Portulaca villosa................ Ihi................. U.S.A. (HI)........ Portulacaceae...... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Pritchardia bakeri............... Baker's loulu....... U.S.A. (HI)........ Arecaceae.......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium Enaena.............. U.S.A. (HI)........ Asteraceae......... E ........... NA NA
var. molokaiense.

* * * * * * *
Ranunculus hawaiensis............ Makou............... U.S.A. (HI)........ Ranunculaceae...... E ........... NA NA
Ranunculus mauiensis............. Makou............... U.S.A. (HI)........ Ranunculaceae...... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Sanicula sandwicensis............ None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Apiaceae........... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Santalum involutum............... Iliahi.............. U.S.A. (HI)........ Santalaceae........ E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Schidea diffusa ssp. diffusa..... None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Caryophyllaceae.... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Schiedea pubescens............... Maolioli............ U.S.A. (HI)........ Caryophyllaceae.... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Sicyos lanceoloideus............. Anunu............... U.S.A. (HI)........ Cucurbitaceae...... E ........... NA NA
Sicyos macrophyllus.............. Anunu............... U.S.A. (HI)........ Cucurbitaceae...... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Solanum nelsonii................. Popolo.............. U.S.A. (HI)........ Solanaceae......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Stenogyne kaalae ssp. sherffii... None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Lamiaceae.......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Wikstroemia skottbergiana........ Akia................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Thymelaceae........ E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Ferns and Allies

[[Page 58909]]

* * * * * * *
Asplenium diellaciniatum......... None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Aspleniaceae....... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Cyclosorus boydiae............... Kupukupu makalii.... U.S.A. (HI)........ Thelypteridaceae... E ........... NA NA
Deparia kaalaana................. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Athyraceae......... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla... Hohiu............... U.S.A. (HI)........ Dryopteridaceae.... E ........... NA NA

* * * * * * *
Huperzia stemmermanniae.......... None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Lycopodiaceae...... E ........... NA NA
Hypolepis hawaiiensis var. Olua................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Dennstaedtiaceae... E ........... NA NA
mauiensis.

* * * * * * *
Microlepia strigosa var. None................ U.S.A. (HI)........ Dennstaedtiaceae... E ........... NA NA
mauiensis.

* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

* * * * *

Dated: August 25, 2015.
James W. Kurth,
Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2015-24305 Filed 9-29-15; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P