[Federal Register Volume 80, Number 145 (Wednesday, July 29, 2015)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 45086-45097]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2015-18602]
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2009-0094; 450 003 0115]
RIN 1018-AY64
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing the
Honduran Emerald Hummingbird (Amazilia luciae)
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
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SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), are listing
the Honduran emerald hummingbird (Amazilia luciae) as endangered under
the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). This species is
endemic to Honduras, and the population is estimated to be between
5,000 and 10,000 breeding pairs. Its suitable habitat has decreased
significantly in the past 100 years; habitat degradation,
fragmentation, and loss have been identified as the primary threats to
the continued survival of this species.
DATES: This final rule is effective August 28, 2015.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of
[[Page 45087]]
Foreign Species, Ecological Services Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service, 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203;
telephone 703-358-2171. If you use a telecommunications device for the
deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-
877-8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Executive Summary
I. Purpose of the Regulatory Action
We are listing the Honduran emerald hummingbird as endangered under
the Endangered Species Act (ESA or Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) as
habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss have been identified as
primary threats to the continued survival of this species.
II. Major Provisions of the Regulatory Action
This action lists the Honduran emerald hummingbird as endangered on
the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife at 50 CFR 17.11(h).
Background
The ESA was passed to prevent extinction of species by providing
measures to help alleviate the loss of species and their habitats.
Before a plant or animal species can receive the protection provided by
the ESA, it must first be added to one of the Federal Lists of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. Section 4 of the ESA and
its implementing regulations at part 424 of title 50 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR) set forth the procedures for adding species
to these lists.
Previous Federal Actions
On June 23, 2010, we published a 90-day finding (75 FR 35746) on
the petition announcing that we would initiate a status review to
determine if listing this species is warranted. On January 2, 2013, we
published a 12-month finding and proposed rule (78 FR 59) to list this
species as endangered under the Act.
Summary of Comments
We base this final rule on a review of the best scientific and
commercial information available, including all information we received
during the public comment period. In the January 2, 2013, proposed rule
(78 FR 59), we requested that all interested parties submit information
that might contribute to development of a final rule. The public
comment period was open for 60 days, ending March 4, 2013. We also
contacted appropriate scientific experts and organizations, and invited
them to comment on the proposed listing in accordance with our peer
review policy, described in the section below. We received five (5)
comments during the comment period including two from peer reviewers,
one comment from the Petitioner, one comment containing three reports,
and one non-substantial comment. These comments are available at http://www.regulations.gov in Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2009-0094. The information
in the comments provided updated life history information about the
species, documented where this species has been recently observed, and
provided an updated population estimate (5,000-10,000 breeding pairs).
This information is described in the Summary of Changes from Proposed
Rule section below as well as incorporated into the rule.
Peer Review
In accordance with our policy, ``Notice of Interagency Cooperative
Policy for Peer Review in Endangered Species Act Activities,'' that was
published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we sought the expert opinion
of three appropriate independent specialists regarding this rule. The
purpose of such review is to ensure listing decisions are based on
scientifically sound data, assumptions, and analysis. We sent copies of
the proposed rule to the peer reviewers immediately following
publication in the Federal Register. We invited these peer reviewers to
comment, during the public comment period, on the specific assumptions
and the data that were the basis for our conclusions regarding the
proposal to list this species as endangered under the Act. We received
comments from two peer reviewers.
We reviewed all comments we received for substantive issues and new
information regarding the proposed listing of this species; we address
those comments in the section that follows. Comments that provided
support or opposition without substantive information were noted, but
not addressed in this final rule.
Summary of Changes From Proposed Rule
This final rule incorporates the comments we received on our
proposed listing and newly available scientific and commercial
information. Peer reviewers generally commented that the proposed rule
was thorough and comprehensive. New reports relevant to the Honduran
emerald hummingbird and its habitat were submitted during the comment
period. Two resources were provided which provided new population
estimates. The estimated number of Honduran emerald hummingbirds in one
study (INGTELSIG 2013) was estimated to be larger than other estimates;
however, there were several aspects of the methodology, assumptions,
and study design that were questioned by other scientists to the extent
that we did not have confidence in the population estimate provided in
the study (Anderson et al. 2013, pp. 9-14). The second resource
provided the most significant change; based on recent surveys, the
population of this species appears to be greater than was previously
believed. At the time our proposed rule published, the most current
population estimate was 200-1,000 individuals; new information provided
during the public comment period indicates that the population of the
Honduran emerald hummingbird is likely between 5,000 to 10,000 pairs
(Anderson et al. 2013, p. 10). The new information is incorporated into
this final listing determination. There are very few individuals
studying and working closely with this species, and future studies are
needed to obtain more precise estimates of the Honduran emerald
hummingbird population. Our determinations were based on the best
available scientific and commercial information. None of the
information obtained during the comment period changed our final
listing determination. A list of literature used in finalizing this
determination and comments we received are available at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2009-0094.
Species Information
Taxonomy
This hummingbird species was first taxonomically described by
Lawrence in 1867, and placed in the Trochilidae family as Amazilia
luciae (BLI 2013, p. 1; Sibley and Monroe 1993, 1990). Common names for
the species include Honduran emerald hummingbird, Ariane De Lucy
(French), and in Honduras it is commonly known as the colibr[iacute]
esmeralda Hondure[ntilde]o (Spanish). BLI and the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) both recognize the species as Amazilia luciae (BLI 2008, p. 1).
We recognize this species as Amazilia luciae, which also follows the
Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS 2013). ITIS is a database
maintained by a partnership of U.S., Canadian, and Mexican federal
government agencies, other organizations, and taxonomic specialists to
provide taxonomic information.
[[Page 45088]]
Description
The Honduran emerald hummingbird is one of more than 325
hummingbird species. Hummingbirds exhibit a wide range of flight-
related morphology and behavior based on ecological factors (Altshuler
and Dudley 2002, p. 2,325). As do all hummingbirds, the Honduran
emerald hummingbird exhibits slight sexual dimorphism (physical
differences between the females and males), which is demonstrated in
the coloring of its plumage. This species is a medium-sized hummingbird
with an average length of 9.5 centimeters (3.7 inches) (BLI 2008, p.
2). The male has an iridescent blue-green throat and upper chest and
occasionally has a grey mottled coloring. Its back is an emerald green
color, the ventral (underneath) side of the bird is pale grey with
mottled green sides, and the tail is bright green with a bronze hint on
the upper tail coverts (BLI 2008, p. 1). The plumage of the female is
less brilliant (BLI 2008, p. 2). The tail of the female contains a grey
tip, and the band of distinctive color on the throat of the female
hummingbird is narrower, with pale edges (BLI 2008, p. 2; Monroe 1968,
p. 183). Juveniles have grayish throats spotted with turquoise (BLI
2008, p. 2).
Hummingbird bills vary among species and are adapted for
specialized feeding. The bill of the Honduran emerald hummingbird is
black and slightly curved with a red mandible and dark tip and is
slightly longer and more decurved (downward curving) bill than the
closely related species A. candida (Monroe 1968, p. 182). The curvature
of its bill is associated with foraging for nectar in plant species
within its habitat (Gill 1987, p. 780).
Biology
The Honduran emerald hummingbird historically has preferred arid
interior valleys of thorn forest and shrubs. The Agu[aacute]n River
Valley area rarely receives more than 76 centimeters (30 inches) of
rain per year (Perez and Thorn 2012, pers. comm.; Gallardo 2010, http://www.birdsofhonduras.com). Due to the arid climate, many of the plant
species are adapted to retain water and are succulents or contain
spines as protection from herbivores. Many of the plants lose all their
leaves in the dry season, and Honduran emerald hummingbird habitat may
appear almost lifeless. Typical plants within its habitat include
cacti, acacias, and other succulents. Three species of arborescent
(tree-like) cacti have been associated with the Honduran emerald
hummingbird's habitat: Pilosocereus maxonii, Stenocereus yunckeri
(endemic), and Opuntia hondurensis (endemic) (House 2004, p. 15). The
flowering of Opuntia hondurensis coincides with the nesting period of
the Honduran emerald hummingbird (House 2004, p. 23). Large clusters of
three species of orchids, Myrmecophila wendlandii, Laelia rubescens,
and Encyclia nematocaulon, were found growing on cacti within the
habitat (House 2004, p. 16). The trees and shrubs found in one study of
its habitat were almost 100 percent deciduous (House 2004, p. 15). In
larger, more mature trees, some bromeliads (when blooming are sources
of nectar and energy) were found. Although epiphytes (plants that grow
non-parasitically on another plant, such as a tree) are usually rare in
this habitat type, some epiphytes are well adapted to the extremes of
this environment.
In Honduras, this habitat occurs primarily along the Gulf of
Fonseca, in the Agalta Valley in the Olancho Department, and in the
Agu[aacute]n Valley in the Yoro Department (for a map of the Honduran
emerald populations, see our proposed rule, 78 FR 63). This species
tends to be found in similar altitudes, although it has recently been
observed at higher elevations (Germer 2013, pp. 1-2). Most of the
hummingbird's occurrences have been noted at elevations between 150 and
600 meters (492 and 1,968.5 feet (ft)) above sea level; however, other
observations were recorded at 845 and 1,220 meters (2,772 and 4,003 ft)
(Germer 2012; pp. 55-56; Sanchez et al. 2011, p. 69).
The Honduran emerald hummingbird nests in March and April, and its
nest has been observed in a Guayabillo tree (Eugenia lempana) (Espinal
and Marineros 2008, p. 1). Its nests are made of cobwebs, lichens, and
mosses, and it usually lays two eggs which hatch in 2\1/2\ weeks
(Germer 2011, p. 52).
Emerald hummingbirds are somewhat aggressive and territorial
(Collar et al. 1992, p. 493; Howell and Webb 1989, p. 643), due to
competition with other hummingbird species for resources. This species
has been observed feeding at heights between 0.5 to 10 meters (2 to 32
ft) (Howell and Webb 1989, p. 643). Some aspects of this species'
behavior remain unclear, such as how far individuals disperse, what
habitats are important for dispersal, and how the populations are
linked genetically (Perez and Thorn 2012 pers. comm.; Anderson et al.
2010, p. 7).
As with all hummingbird species, the Honduran emerald hummingbird
relies on nectar-producing flowers for food and energy, and relies on
insects and spiders as sources of protein (Germer 2012, p. 2; Collar et
al. 1992, p. 494). Thorn et al. (2000, p. 23) observed that habitat
with abundant flowers, red in particular, appeared to be a critical
characteristic for suitable habitat. Additionally, suitable habitat
requirements include similar ecological conditions such as access to
nectar and insects, rainfall, humidity and temperature. During one
field study in Santa Barbara, Honduran emerald hummingbirds were
observed hunting arthropods about 50 percent of their time (Stiles
1985).
Hummingbirds are known to ``disperse'' rather than ``migrate'' in
the sense that they do not follow routine, standard, round-trip
movements; they follow sources of food availability (Berthold et al.
2003, pp. 40-41). Hummingbirds are the most specialized nectar-feeding
birds in the New World (Graham et al. 2009, p. 19,673). Hummingbirds
quickly shift to the best available sources of nectar; their choice of
habitat may change concurrent with loss of their preferred food sources
(Gill 1987, p. 785; Montgomerie et al. 1984). When a hummingbird's
habitat does not provide its required resources, research indicates
that they tend to abandon a territory and move to more productive areas
(Feinsinger and Colwell 1978; Kodric-Brown and Brown 1978 in Justino et
al. 2012, p. 194). Emerald hummingbirds are habitat generalists in the
sense that they do not rely exclusively on a single species of plant
for nourishment; rather, they utilize a wide variety of nectar-
producing plants to meet their nutritional requirements (Graham et al.
2009, p. 19,675). Helicteres guazumaefolia, which produces nectar all
year (as opposed to seasonally), was observed to be a preferred food
source for the Honduran emerald hummingbird in Santa Barbara (Komar et
al. 2013, pp. 25-26). This species has been observed actively foraging
mid-morning, concurrent with the time during the day when nectar is
most plentiful. For example, energy present in Heliconia stilesii
flowers averaged 200 to 300 joules per flower in the early morning and
300 to 500 joules per flower by midmorning (Gill 1987, pp. 781-782).
Germer (2011) found that during the dry season, the Honduran
emerald hummingbird can be found in gallery forests (forests that grow
in corridors along wetlands or rivers, projecting into sparsely treed
areas), or near bodies of water where humidity and abundance of small
arthropods is greater. Its use of these areas is believed to reduce its
metabolic cost and escape heat during the driest seasons (pp. 52-53).
High variability between detections was observed, which could imply
that the
[[Page 45089]]
species is not evenly distributed across the available habitat (Germer
2011, pp. 52-53); it may move seasonally in search of food sources.
In Yoro, the Honduran emerald hummingbird uses the species
Pedilanthus camporum, which produces flowers year-round, and Nopalea
hondurensis, which flowers generally between February and April, 90
percent of the time observed. In the Coyoles area in the Agu[aacute]n
Valley, the thorn forest is primarily comprised of Mimosaceae
(herbaceous and woody species), Cactaceae (cactus species), and
Euphorbiaceae (herbs, shrubs, trees, and some succulent species)
(Collar et al. 1992, p. 494). In western Honduras, 90 percent of
foraging observations were on Aphelandra scabra and Helicteres
guazaumifolia. A list of plant species utilized by Honduran emerald
hummingbirds is available in our proposed rule, 78 FR 63.
Population
In our proposed rule (78 FR 59), we noted that several attempts
have been made to estimate the population status of the Honduran
emerald. In 2007, the total population was estimated to be between 200
and 1,000 individuals (Anderson et al. 2007, p. 1). At the time of the
publication of our proposed rule, the best estimate suggested a
population of approximately 200-1000 individuals (BLI 2012,
unpaginated; Perez and Thorn pers. comm. 2012).
During the public comment period, we received additional
information indicating that the total population estimate for Honduran
emerald may be higher than previously believed. One study, published in
2013, suggested that the population of Honduran emerald hummingbirds
was significantly larger, estimated to be between 50,000 and 106,000
individuals (INGTELSIG 2013). We find this to be an overestimate due to
several erroneous assumptions in the study design and sampling
methodology, which were described in Anderson et al. (2013, pp. 10-12).
More recent studies and research suggests that there are between 5,000
and 10,000 breeding pairs spread across seven separate populations
(Anderson et al. 2013, p. 2). Table 1 provides the current population
estimate for each of the populations based upon the best available
scientific and commercial information submitted by researchers working
with the species.
Table 1--Population Estimates by Valley
[Anderson 2013, pp. 2, 14]
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Location of Population
Honduran department population estimate
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Santa Barbara Department........ Tencoa Valley..... 2,500-5,000
Jicatuyo Valley... breeding pairs.
Quimist[aacute]n
Valley.
Yoro Department................. Agu[aacute]n 1,000-2,000
Valley. breeding pairs.
Olancho Department.............. Agalta Valley..... 1,000-2,000
Telica Valley..... breeding pairs.
Guayape Valley 500-1,000 breeding
(Valle de pairs.
Olancho). Extirpated.
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Historic Distribution
The Honduran emerald hummingbird is the only known endemic bird
species in Honduras (Anderson and Devenish 2009, p. 258; Portillo 2007,
p. 17; Thorn et al. 2000, p. 3; Collar et al. 1992, p. 493; Monroe
1968, p. 182). Based on specimen data, the species was originally known
to occur in four departments (which are similar to ``states'' in the
United States): Cort[eacute]s and Santa Barbara in the west and Yoro
and Olancho in the northeast. The Honduran emerald hummingbird was
likely a forest inhabitant and described as locally common (Howell
1989, p. 642). The locations and dates where this species has been
documented are as follows:
Catacamas, Olancho (1937 and 1991) (Howell and Webb 1992,
pp. 46-47; Monroe 1968, p. 182).
Cofrad[iacute]a, Cortes (1933) (Monroe 1968, p. 182).
Coyoles, Yoro (1948 and 1950) (Monroe 1968, p. 182).
El Boquer[oacute]n, Olancho (recorded September 1937)
(Monroe 1968, p. 182).
Olanchito, Yoro (1988) (Howell and Webb 1989, pp. 642-
643).
Santa B[aacute]rbara, Santa B[aacute]rbara (1935) (Monroe
1968, p. 182).
Between 1950 and 1988 there were no recorded observations of the
Honduran emerald hummingbird. In 1988, the species was described as
common in Olanchito and Coyoles, which are located 16 km (9 miles)
apart (BLI 2008, p. 2). In 1991, between 22 and 28 individuals were
found in a patch of habitat measuring 500 by 50 meters (1,640 x 164 ft)
near Olanchito (Howell and Webb 1992, pp. 46-47). In 1996, the bird was
found in the Agalta Valley on less than 1 km\2\ (247 acres or .39
square miles (mi\2\)) of suitable habitat (BLI 2008, p. 3).
Current Distribution
Prior to its 1988 rediscovery in Olanchito and Coyoles, it was
thought that habitat loss had restricted the Honduran emerald
hummingbird to isolated patches of arid thorn-forest and scrub of the
interior valleys of northern Honduras. Between 2007 and 2013, this
species was documented in seven valleys in Honduras (Anderson et al.
2013, p. 2; Germer 2012, pp. 52-60; Anderson 2010, p. 4) (see Fig. 1).
In the Tencoa Valley (Santa Barbara), researchers found individuals in
five habitat patches, each separated by at least 5 km (3 miles). These
habitat fragments were between 5 and 60 hectares (ha) (12 and 148
acres) each. It is estimated that the population in the Santa Barbara
Department is approximately 200 km (124 miles) west of the nearest
known population in the Agu[aacute]n Valley (Anderson 2010, p. 5). The
Honduran emerald hummingbird density within the Santa Barbara
Department has been estimated to be between 76 and 167 individuals per
km\2\ (29-64 mi\2\) (Sanchez et al. 2011, p. 5), but its density varies
based on food availability. BLI reports that its range is 400 km\2\
(154 mi\2\). However, local experts believe its actual extent of
occurrence may be closer to 150 km\2\ (58 mi\2\) (Perez and Thorn pers.
comm. 2012). Observations of the Honduran emerald hummingbird have been
recently reported in western Honduras in the Quimist[aacute]n Valley
(in the R[iacute]o Chamelec[oacute]n watershed) and Tencoa Valley
(R[iacute]o Ul[uacute]a watershed), in the Santa Barbara Department
where it had not been recorded since 1935. The westernmost occurrence
of the species is in the Oro River Valley, near Sula in the
municipality of Macuelizo. The northernmost site is in the Valley of
Azacualpa, also in the municipality of Macuelizo.
[[Page 45090]]
Agalta Valley (Olancho Department)
In 2007, this species was observed in the Agalta Valley and in the
Telica Valley, both in the Olancho Department (Anderson and Hyman 2007,
p. 6). The Agalta Valley is described as a remote region in the
mountains of eastern Honduras containing over 1,000,000 ha (2,471,054
acres) of land characterized as dry basin. Here, the Honduran emerald
hummingbird's habitat primarily is on large, privately owned cattle
ranches that have restricted access (Anderson et al. 2010, p. 3). The
species has been known to occur in this valley since the mid-1990s
(Anderson et al. 1998, p. 181). Although this species exists in the
Agalta Valley, very little information regarding the factors affecting
this species in this area are known. Reports indicate that areas that
contain suitable habitat characteristics for the Honduran emerald
hummingbird are being cleared for rice cultivation (Hyman 2012, pers.
comm.; Bonta 2011, pers. comm.). Several of the remaining habitat
patches are connected by narrow corridors of habitat along property
lines and waterways, but most of the patches of remaining habitat are
``islands'' within cattle pasture, which comprises approximately 90
percent of the Valley's area (Bonta 2011, pers. comm.).
Agu[aacute]n Valley (Yoro Department)
This hummingbird species is known in the Agu[aacute]n Valley, Yoro
Department, in the areas of Olanchito and Coyoles, and is reported as
relatively common, but only within its remaining suitable habitat
(Gallardo 2010, p. 186; Thorn et al. 2000, pp. 22-23). This species has
also been observed in New Valle del Rio de Oro, Valle de Azacualpa, and
Rio Jicatuyo in the vicinity of San Luis. The Honduran emerald
hummingbird's habitat formerly encompassed a large extent of the
Agu[aacute]n Valley, a once pristine plain of nearly 4,662 km\2\ (1,800
mi\2\). Ninety percent of its original habitat no longer exists in its
original form due to the conversion of its habitat to banana
plantations and cattle pasture. Much of the Honduran emerald
hummingbird's habitat is on privately owned land and is often planted
with nonnative grasses for cattle grazing (Perez and Thorn 2012, pers.
comm.; Anderson pers. comm. 2008 in Petition 2008, p. 11). In some
cases, it is planted with invasive grass species (http://www.birdlist.org/cam/honduras/hn_ecosystems.htm, accessed May 22,
2012). Today, due to decades of unregulated and expanding cattle
ranching, the hummingbird's dry forest range is limited to a few small,
isolated islands of habitat. Its increasingly smaller ecosystems are
surrounded by human-dominated landscapes. One estimate indicated that
between 2,428 and 3,237 ha (6,000-8,000 acres) of suitable habitat
remains in the Agu[aacute]n Valley, most of which is privately owned
(Gallardo 2010, p. 186); however, other estimates indicate that the
species has even less suitable habitat available than the above
estimate (Perez and Thorn 2012 pers. comm.).
The lands along the Agu[aacute]n River have periodically been
devastated by banana diseases, floods, and hurricanes, particularly
Hurricane Fifi in 1974 and Hurricane Mitch in 1998 (NOAA 2012, p. 2;
Winograd 2006; USGS 2002, p. 5). This valley is on the south side of
the Nombre de Dios Mountain Range, primarily in the Yoro Department
(Gallardo 2010, p. 185). The Agu[aacute]n River Watershed is 10,546
km\2\ (4,072 mi\2\ or 2,605,973 acres), is delimited by the tributaries
of the Agu[aacute]n River, and extends across the departments of Yoro,
Colon, Atl[aacute]ntida, and Olancho (WWF 2008, p. 12; see Map 5, Map
of Honduras, Agu[aacute]n Valley at http://www.regulations.gov under
Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2009-0094). This valley experiences a unique
microclimate in which most of the rain falls between June and November
(Gallardo 2010, p. 185). The land in the Agu[aacute]n Valley is rich
and fertile, and therefore, highly likely to be converted into
agricultural lands fields, particularly in a country with a high
poverty index that relies strongly on its land for agriculture (WWF
2008, p. 2).
Western Honduras
In 2000, a survey was conducted for the Honduran emerald
hummingbird and concluded that it occurs in dry tropical forest
(Anderson and Hyman 2007, pp. 1-4; Thorn et al. 2000, pp. 1-5). Upon
the recent rediscovery of the species in western Honduras, researchers
determined that the species was also residing in areas with different
ecological characteristics (Anderson et al. 2010). Sites occupied by
the Honduran emerald hummingbird in western Honduras are best described
as semi-deciduous woodland, a habitat that has not previously been
associated with the species. Canopy height in this area averages 15
meters (49 ft), dominated by semi-deciduous broad-leaved tree species,
principally Eugenia oerstediana, Bursera simaruba, and Tabebuia rosea,
that form a relatively closed tree canopy. Common understory species
are Agave parvidentata, Tillandsia fasciculata, Bromelia pinguin,
Bromelia plumieri, and Acanthocereus pentagonus (Anderson 2010, p. 5).
According to Komar et al. 2013, this species has been observed
utilizing four habitats (dry forest, dry scrubland, wooded pasture, and
lowland pine/oak forest).
Conservation Status
The Honduran emerald hummingbird is listed as endangered by the
IUCN (2012). The category of this species was reclassified as
endangered from critically endangered following its recent discovery in
the western part of Honduras, which increased its known range (BLI
2012, pp. 1-2). Its IUCN classification is based on its very small and
severely fragmented range and population. However, this status under
IUCN conveys no actual protections to the species. The Honduran emerald
hummingbird has been listed in Appendix II of CITES since October 22,
1987, at which time all hummingbird species not previously listed in
the Appendices were listed in Appendix II. Honduras and the United
States are both Parties to CITES, an international treaty among 180
nations through which member countries, called Parties, work together
to ensure that international trade in CITES-listed animals and plants
is not detrimental to the survival of wild populations. This goal is
achieved by regulating import, export, and re-export of CITES-listed
animal and plant species and their parts and products through a
permitting system (http://www.cites.org). Appendix II includes species
which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may
become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to
strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their
survival; and other species which must be subject to regulation in
order that trade in specimens of certain species threatened with
extinction which are or may be affected by trade may be brought under
effective control (CITES Article II(2)). International trade in
specimens of Appendix II species may be authorized through a system of
permits or certificates under certain circumstances, and must be in
accordance with CITES Article IV. For example, export may only be
authorized when: (1) The CITES Scientific Authority of the country of
export has determined that the export will not be detrimental to the
survival of the species; (2) the CITES Management Authority of the
country of export has determined that the specimens to be exported were
legally acquired; and (3) the CITES Management Authority of the country
of export has determined that any living specimen will be so prepared
and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or
cruel
[[Page 45091]]
treatment (CITES Article IV(2)). In the United States, CITES is
implemented through the Act and implementing regulations at 50 CFR part
23.
Factors Affecting the Species
Introduction
The most serious threat affecting this species is the continued
degradation and fragmentation of existing habitat, and the complete
loss of habitat (estimated to be 90 percent) over the past 100 years
due to land conversion from prime thorn forest habitat to banana
plantations, agriculture, and cattle pastures (Komar et al. 2013, p.
28; Perez and Thorn 2012, pers. comm.). Studies published in 2013
indicate that in Santa Barbara, the area that contains the most
suitable habitat for the Honduran emerald hummingbird, agriculture,
cattle grazing, coffee cultivation, mining, dam construction, and fires
are the primary factors contributing to the degradation, fragmentation
and loss of habitat (Komar et al. 2013, p. 37; Anderson et al. 2013,
pp. 1-3). This loss of habitat interacts with the ecologically
deleterious factors associated with palm oil production, land
ownership, pesticides and fertilizers, roads, hydroelectric and
development projects, international trade, disease and predation, small
and declining populations, and other factors in affecting the Honduran
emerald hummingbird's habitat. These factors are discussed in detail
below.
Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation
Honduras has been steadily losing thorn forest cover, particularly
since the early 1960s, mostly due to the conversion of thorn forest
areas to agricultural areas, such as cattle pastures and coffee, bean,
corn, and banana plantations (World Wildlife Fund 2008, p. 11; Anderson
pers. comm. 2008 in Petition 2008, p. 11; Portillo 2007, p. 75). In
Yoro, there are only four large patches of suitable habitat for this
species remaining (Perez and Thorn 2012, pers. comm.; Anderson 2010).
The four largest fragments are between 360 and 476 ha (890 and 1,176
acres), for a combined total of 1,704 ha (4,210 acres) (Anderson 2010,
p. 6). In the Agu[aacute]n Valley, as of 2000, suitable habitat for the
Honduran emerald had reduced in size to an estimated 8,495 ha (20,991
acres) from 16,000 ha (39,537 acres) in 1977, and 30,000 ha (74,132
acres) in 1938 (Thorn et al. 2000, p. 25). Even with the rediscovery of
the species in Santa Barbara and the extension of its range in Olancho,
the species' habitat has been reduced due to habitat conversion to
plantations and cattle ranches (see Fig. 1; Perez and Thorn pers. comm.
2012). Due to habitat destruction/degradation rates in Santa Barbara,
no suitable habitat for the Honduran emerald hummingbird may remain by
the year 2025 (Anderson et al. 2013, p. 5).
In the last ~100 years, the Agu[aacute]n region has experienced
three periods of agricultural economic growth (WWF 2008, p. 11). Thorn
forests were initially cleared in the Agu[aacute]n Valley to create
banana and plantain plantations and rice farms, as well as pasture for
cattle (Stattersfield and Capper 2000, p. 311). However, after an
outbreak of Panama disease occurred in bananas, the Agu[aacute]n Valley
was largely abandoned, and much of the land reverted to pasture or
forest. As a result of the agricultural reforms of the 1960s and 1970s,
Honduran campesinos (farmers) received farmland in the Agu[aacute]n
Valley and proceeded to clear and develop the Valley that was
previously forested into an agricultural region. In the late 1970s,
lands were again cultivated with disease-resistant varieties of
bananas. In the Agu[aacute]n Valley, 10,319 ha (25,500 ac) now consist
of banana plantations in an area known as the Barisma farm (Dole 2011,
p. 67). One of the best patches of optimal Honduran emerald hummingbird
habitat in the Agu[aacute]n Valley has practically disappeared due to
its proximity to a nearby town (Thorn 2012, pers. comm.). Now, only a
single forest remnant larger than 100 ha (247 ac) that is suitable for
this species is known to exist in this valley (Anderson 2010, p. 6).
Habitat suitable for Honduran emerald hummingbirds continues to be
cleared by private landowners in order to plant pasture grass for
grazing cattle (Hyman 2012 pers. comm.).
Several hummingbird species have persisted in fragmented tropical
landscapes (Stouffer & Bierregaard 1995 in Hadley & Betts 2009, p.
207). However, hummingbird persistence at the landscape scale does not
indicate that the population is at the same level it was prior to
deforestation (Hadley & Betts 2009, p. 207). Flight paths used by the
green hermit hummingbird (Phaethornis guy) indicate that gaps in
suitable habitat alter hummingbird movement pathways (Hadley 2012, p.
48; Hadley & Betts 2009, p. 209). Due to the fragmentation of their
habitat, Honduran emeralds and other hummingbird species are forced to
expend more energy moving between suitable habitat patches to breed,
feed, and nest; the flight of hummingbirds is one of the most
energetically demanding forms of animal locomotion (Buermann et al.
2011, p. 1,671). In agricultural landscapes, hummingbirds were observed
traveling longer distances and took more circuitous routes than in
forested landscapes. Overall, movement paths were strongly linked to
areas that contained higher forest cover (Hadley & Betts 2009, p. 209).
Nectar is the primary source of carbohydrates for hummingbirds, and
insects or pollen is the primary sources of protein for hummingbirds
(Ara[uacute]jo et al. 2011, p. 827; Hegland et al. 2009, p. 188).
Although studies of nutritional requirements have been conducted with
respect to other hummingbird species, the home range required to
support the breeding, feeding, and nesting requirements for each pair
of Honduran emerald hummingbirds is unknown. Hadley noted in 2012 that
plant densities, flower abundance, and flower quality (e.g., number of
inflorescences, display size) can all be affected by landscape
configuration such as edge effects (changes in population or community
structures occurring at the boundaries of two habitats) due to factors
such as light and humidity levels; therefore, hummingbird foraging
behavior is likely sensitive to fragmentation (Hadley 2012, pp. 23-35).
Efforts by Pico Bonito National Park Foundation (Fundaci[oacute]n
Parque Nacional Pico Bonito (FUPNAPIB)) and others have attempted to
preserve important parts of this species' habitat; however, even the
areas designated as protected are experiencing habitat degradation
(Hyman 2013, pp. 1-2).
Land Ownership
Because approximately 84 percent of the Honduran emerald's suitable
habitat is privately owned, it is difficult to provide protections to
this species (Steiner 2012 pers. comm.; FAO 2010, p. 238). In many
cases, the only sites in Honduras that have maintained a viable
ecosystem in somewhat of a natural state are places with irregular
topography. Subsequently, these areas have become protected or private
nature reserves (Portillo 2007, p. 75). Much of this species' original
habitat, thorn forest, has been cleared for housing, towns,
agriculture, and cattle grazing (Stattersfield and Capper 2000, p. 311;
Thorn et al. 2000, p. 4). This species' remaining habitat in the
Agu[aacute]n Valley (Yoro Department) and Agalta Valley (Olancho
Department) is primarily privately owned as large haciendas
(plantations or farms), where cattle grazing, clearing for cattle, and
plantation agriculture continues to occur (Stattersfield and Capper
2000, p. 311). In the lower river valley, agricultural cooperatives are
raising
[[Page 45092]]
citrus fruits, corn (maize), rice, and African palm for oil (WWF 2008,
p. 12). Because most of this species' habitat is unprotected, the
species is likely to continue to experience habitat degradation through
conversion of its habitat to other uses such as cattle grazing and
agricultural plantations.
Palm Oil Production
Although palm oil plantations in the Agu[aacute]n River Basin have
not been directly implicated as the cause of Honduran emerald habitat
loss, palm oil plantations have replaced pasture lands that were left
behind after the banana plantations diminished from their initial
success during the first part of the 20th century (WWF 2008, p. 30).
The palm oil production in the Agu[aacute]n River Basin is concentrated
between Sava and Tumbaderos (WWF 2008, p. 17) and covers 28,082 ha
(69,392 ac.). The area includes plantations, processing plants,
nurseries, palm oil collecting sites, and other infrastructure.
Honduras' palm oil industry exported over $21 million U.S. dollars'
worth of palm oil in 2004, and Honduras is expected to increase its
production of palm oil for biofuel (Silvestri 2008, pp. ii-iii). Other
countries are encouraging Honduras to increase production of palm oil,
which would likely affect the Agu[aacute]n River Basin (Silvestri 2008,
pp. 47; WWF 2008, pp. 37-38). These changes in land use have had an
environmental cost (WWF 2008, pp. 30, 53-54), such as land degradation
through deforestation and exposure to fertilizers and pesticides, which
are discussed below. Although the conversion to palm oil plantations
may not be occurring directly in Honduran emerald hummingbird habitat,
its effects may impact this species via the development of roads,
habitat conversion, and settlements.
To provide perspective on the magnitude of the production in this
valley, the Agu[aacute]n Valley Palm Producers Association (APROVA) is
a cooperative of 154 oil palm farmers (USDA 2012, pp. 1-3). In 2009,
APROVA opened its first palm oil processing plant, which processes up
to five tons of palm oil per day (USDA 2012, pp. 1-3); there are now
five processing plants. As of 1938, within the Agu[aacute]n Valley
30,000 ha (74,131 ac) were the arid, thorn forest preferred by the
Honduran emerald (Tierra America 2012, pp. 1-2). By 1977, suitable
habitat for the Honduran emerald hummingbird had been reduced to 16,000
ha (39,537 ac), and in 2000, only 8,495 ha (20,991 ac) remained. Of
that area, only 3,900 ha (9,637 ac) can be considered preserved well
enough to sustain significant populations of the Honduran emerald
hummingbird (Mej[iacute]a pers. comm. in Tierra America 2012).
Table 1--Land Reduction in the Agu[aacute]n Valley
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Agu[aacute]n Valley Year Hectares Acres
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Tropical Dry Forest............................................. 1938 30,000 74,131
Tropical Dry Forest............................................. 1977 16,000 39,537
Tropical Dry Forest............................................. 2000 8,495 20,991
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Thorn et al. 2000.
Pesticides and Fertilizers
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) notes that agricultural
production yield level can only be increased with the use of
agrochemicals such as fertilizer and pesticides, which in turn all have
an environmental impact. Before palm oil tree canopies fully develop,
sunlight is able to penetrate the ground resulting in aggressive weed
growth and frequent weed control is needed. Mechanical weed mowers
hauled by agricultural tractors are used to keep weeds at a manageable
height in between rows. Before the canopy is fully developed, areas
around young plants are kept free of competing weeds mostly by chemical
herbicides and by manually removing them (WWF 2008, pp. 24-25).
However, these plantations are approximately 161 km (100 miles) north
of the Honduran emerald hummingbird's habitat, and are not known to
directly affect this species (Hyman 2012, pers. comm.). Therefore, we
do not find pesticides and fertilizers to be a threat to the continued
existence of this species.
Roads
Honduras is ranked among the countries with the lowest development
of road networks in Central America (Acevedo et al. 2008, p. 1). The
agricultural sector is the most important of the Honduran economy
(Acevedo et al. 2008, p. 1); however, this sector is limited by
difficulties of transportation and access to many of the productive
areas of the country due to poor road infrastructure (Quintero et al.
2007, pp. 15-18; Winograd 2006, pp. 1-5).
Existing roads have been negatively impacted by hurricanes,
flooding, and neglect after the crash of the banana industry. The
Agu[aacute]n and Agalta valleys, which contain this species' preferred
habitat, are some of the most productive agricultural areas of the
country, and this change in land use has decreased the available
suitable habitat for the Honduran emerald hummingbird (Acevedo et al.
2008, p. 1). These agricultural areas of the country are in the
departments of Atlantida (Agu[aacute]n Valley) and Olancho (Agalta and
Guayape valleys) and include bananas, coffee, palm oil, corn, beans,
edible vegetables, fruits, and other crops. The improvement and
development of roads to transport agricultural products to economic
hubs is being considered by the Government of Honduras, which may
affect the Honduran emerald hummingbird's habitat.
Growth in this economic sector is impeded by the lack of access to
the most productive agricultural areas of the country due to poor road
infrastructure. The road improvement project (Central Road, Route no.
23) is funded by the World Bank through the ``Second Reconstruction and
Improvement Project Road'' (World Bank 2013, pp. 1-3; World Bank 2011,
pp. 1-3; Proceso Digital 2010). The road improvement project will
likely bring more traffic, which will increase land speculation and
settlement of homes along the road, ultimately impacting surrounding
Honduran emerald hummingbird habitat (Perez and Thorn 2012, pers.
comm.; Steiner and Coto 2011, pp. 1-2). Roads through prime Honduran
emerald hummingbird habitat, which is presently affected by cultivation
of bananas and plantains, link the river valley to the ports at Tela,
La Ceiba, Trujillo, and Puerto Cort[eacute]s.
There are plans to pave the road between Olanchito (Yoro
Department) and San Lorenzo (Valle Department (southcentral Honduras)),
an approximately 57-km (35-mile) stretch that currently passes through
the Agu[aacute]n Valley, which will further impact this species'
habitat (Hyman 2012; pers. comm.; World Bank 2011, pp. 1-3; Anderson
pers. comm. 2008 in Petition 2008; Hyman 2007, p. 10). This project has
been contingent on several factors,
[[Page 45093]]
such as a loan from the World Bank and implementation of measures to
mitigate the impact on the environment. A 2007 World Bank report
indicated that during the project planning stage, the scope of the
project changed so that the road segment passing through vital habitat
for the Honduran emerald hummingbird was not implemented (Quintero
2007, pp. 14-16). In this report, the World Bank indicated that
payments for an environmental services plan, if successfully
implemented, could lead to the long-term protection of an additional
1,000-2,000 ha (2,474-4,942 acres) of Honduran emerald hummingbird
habitat on private lands. This, in turn, would address environmental
concerns associated with the proposed paving of the Olanchito-San
Lorenzo road (Quintero et al. 2007, p. 15). The original plans for this
project included a target completion date of December 2014 (World Bank
2013, pp. 1-2); however, the best available information indicates that
the closing date of the loan has been extended to May 31, 2015 and
implementation progress on the proposed infrastructure was rated as
moderately successful (World Bank 2015, unpaginated; World Bank 2014,
p. 1-6).
The Agalta Valley is traversed by a highway that has been proposed
to be repaved (Inter-American Development Bank 2013, pp. 1-2; Hyman
2012, pers. comm). This region is an area with a high rate of poverty,
and this highway is, in part, intended to improve the economic
conditions in this region. This region contains approximately 50,000
human inhabitants. The highway will complete the second paved transit
route between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans in Honduras. The road is
being improved in order to provide a better link between Tegucigalpa
and the Atlantic coast of Honduras and will better connect the
Departments of Francisco Moraz[aacute]n, Olancho, and Col[oacute]n. It
is unclear how this highway will affect the remaining 5,000 ha (12,355
ac) of this species' habitat (Bonta 2011, pers. comm.) in this valley.
Hydroelectric and Development Projects
The construction of several development projects could possibly
affect this species' habitat (Bonta 2012, pers. comm.) in the Agalta
Valley and the Tencoa Valley. At least two hydroelectric projects have
become operational in recent years (Bonta 2012, pers. comm.). These
projects could likely result in more infrastructure development in the
Valley, which could also affect the Honduran emerald hummingbird's
habitat. Additionally, several agricultural development projects may be
underway in the Agalta Valley (Bonta 2012, pers. comm.). Bonta
indicates that the following projects, which can be located at http://www.hondurasopenforbusiness.com, are likely to affect the Honduran
emerald hummingbird's habitat.
AGR112: Production of Transgenic Certified Maize,
AGR126: Cultivation of Pi[ntilde][oacute]n, Jatropha
curcas, for biodiesel (5,000 ha in the Agalta Valley),
AGR401: Cultivation of Pi[ntilde][oacute]n (5,000 ha in
the Agalta Valley),
AGR402: Cultivation of Pi[ntilde][oacute]n,
FOR204: Teak (Tectona grandis) plantation: 20,000 ha in
three valleys; estimate of 4,000 to 8,000 ha in the Agalta Valley.
Although highway construction, agricultural development, and
resulting infrastructure is likely to occur in the Agalta Valley, it is
unclear how these activities would negatively affect the Honduran
emerald hummingbird in this valley. To mitigate the effects of
development in this area, a Honduran emerald hummingbird conservation
strategy paper for the Agalta Valley was funded by the Inter-American
Development Bank (IADB) and partially developed by the American Bird
Conservancy. In the area of influence of IADB project HO-L1003, the
strategy paper identified 20 remaining fragments of suitable Honduran
emerald hummingbird habitat; all but one of these fragments is located
on private land. The paper recommended development of a payments-for-
ecosystem-services scheme (PES scheme) as the most viable conservation
option. This concept would compensate landowners for conserving or
restoring Honduran emerald hummingbird habitat found on their land in
the Agalta Valley; however, it is unclear whether this has been
implemented (IADB 2013, pp. 1-2).
International Trade
Data obtained from the United Nations Environment Programme--World
Conservation Monitoring Center (UNEP-WCMC) show that, since its listing
in CITES Appendix II in 1987, only two Honduran emerald hummingbird
specimens have been recorded in international trade, involving two
carcasses of unknown origin from Germany to the United States in 1996
(UNEP-WCMC 2009b). Therefore, international trade is not a factor
influencing the species' status in the wild. We are not aware of any
other information that indicates that collection or overutilization of
the Honduran emerald hummingbird is affecting this species.
Disease and Predation
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2014, pp. 1530-1532)
suggests that the distribution of some disease vectors may change as a
result of climate change. However, after conducting a status review of
the Honduran emerald hummingbird and consulting with experts, we have
no information at this time to suggest that any specific diseases are
or may become problematic to this species.
Small and Declining Population
In our proposed rule (78 FR 59), we found that the species' small
population size (at the time of our proposal, estimated to be 200-1,000
individuals) combined with its highly restricted and severely
fragmented range, increased the species' vulnerability to adverse
natural events. The species' potential exposure to extreme weather
events such as hurricanes, extended periods of drought, or flooding, in
combination with habitat loss and degradation was believed to be
affecting the continued existence of the species throughout its range.
During the public comment period, we received new information
indicating that the population estimates were much higher than
previously believed (5,000-10,000 breeding pairs) (see Population
Estimates). Based upon this updated estimate, we have re-evaluated
whether the populations are susceptible to the risks associated with
small and declining populations as described in detail below.
Endemic to Honduras, Honduran emeralds hummingbirds have been found
in seven populations. In the Santa Barbara Department (western
Honduras), they have been found in three separate valleys, Tencoa
Valley, Jicatuyo/Ulua river valley, and the Quimistan Valley. Anderson
et al. (2013, p. 14) estimates a combined population for these three
valleys to be roughly 2,500-5,000 breeding pairs; however, the
researcher notes that no comprehensive, peer-reviewed population
estimate has been completed for this area and as such, there is no
current information indicating how the populations are distributed
between the three separate valleys. Anderson et al. (2010, p. 258)
stated that during research in Tencoa Valley alone, they found
individuals in five habitat fragments, each fragment measuring between
5 to 60 hectares (ha), separated from each other by at least 5 km. A
single individual was found in a 40 ha forest fragment in Quimistan
Valley (Anderson et al. 2010, p. 258). In the Yoro Department, a single
population
[[Page 45094]]
exists in the Agu[aacute]n Valley, a considerable distance from other
known populations; Anderson et al. (2010, p. 259) estimates that the
Santa Barbara populations are 200 km west of the population in the
Agu[aacute]n Valley. Anderson et al. (2013, p. 14) estimates a
population of 1,000-2,000 breeding pairs within the Agu[aacute]n
Valley. In the Olancho Department, Honduran emeralds are found in three
separate valleys, Agalta, Tilica, and Guayape. Anderson et al. (2013,
p. 14) estimates a population of 1,000-2,000 breeding pairs within
Agalta Valley. In Guayape, the species is believed to have been
extirpated. In 2012 and 2013, researchers were unable to detect a
single individual within this valley. Connected to Guayape Valley
through a habitat corridor, it is believed the remaining population in
the Tilica Valley may have historically been a part of the now-
extirpated population (Anderson et al. 2013, p. 13). In Tilica, the
population is estimated to be between 500-1,000 breeding pairs.
Despite the increased total population estimate of 5,000-10,000
breeding pairs, research suggests the individual populations are small,
including one population that is presumably extirpated. Research
illustrates that the populations are both geographically and
genetically isolated from one another. According to Anderson et al.
(2013, p. 3), there has been no evidence to date of Honduran emeralds
being found between any of the seven valleys, indicating that while
there is the potential for gene flow between the populations, the
probability is minimal.
Species endemic to a few, widely dispersed locations are inherently
more vulnerable to extinction than widespread species because of the
higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations,
climate change, and localized catastrophes such as hurricanes,
landslides, and drought (Lande 1988, p. 1,455; Mangel and Tier 1994, p.
607; Pimm et al. 1988, p. 757). Small populations can be more affected
by factors such as demographic stochasticity (variability in population
growth rates arising from random differences among individuals in
survival and reproduction within a season), local catastrophes, and
inbreeding (Pimm et al. 1988, pp. 757, 773-775). Due primarily to the
current rate of habitat fragmentation, degradation, and loss, each
Honduran emerald population is considered to be declining within their
individual locales. Hummingbirds' flight and hovering abilities require
a large amount of energy; this necessitates the utilization of foraging
techniques that maximize the amount of nectar (energy) at a minimum
cost. The degradation, fragmentation, and loss of habitat cause the
species to expend more energy and resources in search of its basic
nutritional requirements (Justino et al. 2012, pp. 194-195; Hadley and
Betts 2009, p. 207). Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss can
separate populations to the point where individuals can no longer
disperse and breed among habitat patches, causing a shift in the
demographic characteristics of a population and a reduction in genetic
fitness (Gilpin and Soul[eacute] 1986, p. 31). A small, declining
population makes the species vulnerable to genetic stochasticity
(random changes in the genetic composition of a population) due to
inbreeding depression and genetic drift (random changes in gene
frequency). This, in turn, compromises a species' ability to adapt
genetically to changing environments (Frankham 1996, p. 1,507), reduces
fitness, and increases extinction risk (Reed and Frankham 2003, pp.
233-234).
Although new population estimates have increased the worldwide
population estimate from 200-1,000 individuals to 5,000 to 10,000
breeding pairs, the individual populations of Honduran emerald are
small and declining. Additionally, the species range is restricted
within Honduras and the individual populations are geographically and
genetically isolated from one another. The Honduran emeralds small and
declining populations combined with their highly restricted and
severely fragmented range increase the species' vulnerability to
adverse natural events and are affecting the continuing existence of
the species throughout its range.
Extreme Weather Events
Small, declining populations can also be especially vulnerable to
environmental disturbances such as flooding, drought, or hurricanes
(O'Grady 2004, pp. 513-514). The Honduran emerald relies on arid, thorn
forest habitat to provide nectar-producing plant species for energy and
insects for protein in order to meet the biological requirements for
breeding, feeding, and nesting. In 2012, Honduras was determined to be
one of the countries most affected by climate change due to its
geographic location, which is in the direct path of many tropical
storms and hurricanes (Harmeling 2012, pp. 5-6). Research and modeling
have explored how changes in climate might affect areas such as
Honduras (Gasner et al. 2010, p. 1,250; Winograd 2002, p. 11). The term
``climate change'' refers to a change in the mean, variability, or
seasonality of climate variables over time periods of decades or
hundreds of years (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2014b, p. 5). Forecasts of the rate and consequences of future climate
change are based on the results of extensive modeling efforts conducted
by scientists around the world (Solman 2011, p. 20; Laurance and Useche
2009, p. 1,432; Nu[ntilde]ez et al. 2008, p. 1; Margeno 2008, p. 1;
Meehl et al. 2007, p. 753).
Climate change models, like all other scientific models, produce
projections that have some uncertainty because of the assumptions used,
the data available, and the specific model features. The science
supporting climate model projections, as well as models assessing their
impacts on species and habitats, will continue to be refined as more
information becomes available. While projections from regional climate
model simulations are informative, various methods to downscale
projections to more localized areas in which the species lives are
still imperfect and under development (Solman 2011, p. 20; Nu[ntilde]ez
et al. 2008, p. 1; Marengo 2008, p. 1).
Honduras appears to have entered a more active period of hurricane
activity (Pielke et al. 2003, p. 102). Studies of natural events in the
last 100 years indicate that Honduras is highly vulnerable to an
increase in frequency and intensity in the future not only hurricanes,
but also landslides, flooding, and drought ([Scedil]ekercio[gbreve]lu
et al. 2011; Gasner et al. 2010, p. 1250; Winograd 2006, p. 1). Due to
its location and the biophysical traits of the region, Honduras is
likely to be affected every 3 to 4 years by climate-related events,
such as drought-related fires, floods, and landslides (Winograd 2006,
p. 1). Winograd notes that 50 percent of Honduras is at risk of
landslides, 30 percent is at risk of severe droughts, and 25 percent is
at risk of flooding, particularly agricultural areas.
Arid-zone species are assumed to be more resilient to high
temperatures and low humidity ([Scedil]ekercio[gbreve]lu et al. 2012,
p. 5). However, species such as the Honduran emerald hummingbird are
exposed to very dry conditions and are likely dependent on seasonal
rains, as well as seasonal and permanent waterholes and rivers
(Schneider and Griesser 2009 in [Scedil]ekercio[gbreve]lu et al. 2011,
p. 5). Even small temperature increases can greatly increase the amount
of birds' evaporative water loss ([Scedil]ekercio[gbreve]lu et al.
2011, p. 5). Warmer weather due to climate change is expected to impact
the ability of birds in arid regions to sustain
[[Page 45095]]
their water balance; this species has been observed at higher
elevations (Germer 2012); which may indicate a response to warmer
temperatures.
Climate models are not always able to predict the possible effects
of ecological interactions, adaptation, or how species, particularly
pollinators, might disperse in response to climate change (Buermann et
al. 2011, p. 1,671; Burkle and Alarc[oacute]n 2011, p. 528; Pearson and
Dawson 2003, p. 361). Honduras is clearly in the path of hurricanes
(Winograd 2006, 2002; Pielke et al. 2003, pp. 101-103). While
additional research is still needed to determine how changes in climate
may affect species such as the Honduran emerald hummingbird, studies
indicate that Honduras is highly vulnerable to an increase in frequency
and intensity in hurricanes, landslides, flooding, and drought
([Scedil]ekercio[gbreve]lu et al. 2011; Gasner et al. 2010, p. 1250;
Hegland et al. 2009, p. 184; Winograd 2006, p. 1). As the Honduran
emerald has a restricted range within Honduras, and the seven remaining
populations are small and declining, we find that that the Honduran
emeralds potential exposure to extreme weather events, in combination
with habitat loss and degradation, is affecting the continued existence
of the species throughout its range.
Conservation Measures in Place
Several mechanisms are in place which are intended to provide
protections to the Honduran emerald hummingbird. These protections
include involvement by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), wildlife
protection laws, and a reserve designated to protect its habitat. These
mechanisms are described below.
Laws and Regulatory Mechanisms
Honduras has made significant progress in conservation of its
natural resources (Portillo 2007, p. 60; Vreugdenhil et al. 2002, pp.
6, 11, 20-25). In the past 30 years, protected areas have increased
from fewer than 20 protected areas to approximately 600 areas with
nationally protected status (Portillo 2007, p. 60). Between 1974 and
1987, meetings were held with regional authorities in order to promote
the conservation of the natural and cultural heritage of Honduras
(Portillo 2007, p. 60). In 2003, the First Mesoamerican Congress on
Protected Areas was held in Managua, Nicaragua. In 2010, Honduras began
an initiative to recover degraded areas and denuded forests (ECOLEX
2012). However, in some cases, these protected areas have not been
managed effectively, as described below (Portillo 2007, p. 63;
Vreugdenhil et al. 2002, pp. 6, 11, 20-25). Although the government of
Honduras has shown initiative in protecting the species, implementation
and enforcement seem to be lacking. Additionally, development projects
are still occurring, such as the hydroelectric projects in Santa
Barbara. Privately owned land continues to be sold to land speculators
and converted from Honduran emerald hummingbird habitat to other uses,
such as agriculture or cattle pastures.
NGO Involvement and the Honduran Emerald Reserve
In Honduras, several NGOs, such as The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and
the Honduran Biodiversity Research Coalition, are participating in the
conservation and management of this species. One protected area, the
Honduran Emerald Reserve (Reserve), was established by the Honduran
Government in 2005, with support from TNC. TNC has provided both
technical and financial support to the government and local community
groups to complete a 10-year management plan for the Reserve. This
Reserve was established in connection with funding from the World Bank
to finish building the main highway linking the capital with Olanchito,
Yoro, via Cedros Francisco Moraz[aacute]n (Steiner and Coto 2011, pp.
1-2) (refer to Roads, above). Some aspects of TNC's involvement have
included marking the official reserve boundaries and providing training
to partners in the management of reserves and protected areas.
In 2009, the National Conservation and Forestry Institute (ICF)
began a management plan for the protected area specifically for the
Honduran emerald. This was with the participation of nearby
municipalities, Arenal Olanchito, the department of Yoro, SOPTRAVI
Honduras Armed Forces (HAF), the Ministry of Education through the
Regional Environmental Education Center, CREATE, the Ministry of
Tourism, and the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Steiner
and Coto 2011, pp. 1-2; Portillo 2007, p. 99). The Interagency
Technical Committee for Monitoring and Honduran Emerald Hummingbird
Habitat Management Area was formed. In 2010, the ICF, with financial
support from TNC, finalized the management plan for the protected area
(Resolution No. DE-MP-147-2010).
This reserve is located 34 km (21 miles) west of the city Olanchito
in the Agu[aacute]n Valley. The reserve encompasses 1,217 ha (3,007 ac)
and spans elevations between 220 and 800 meters (722 and 2,625 ft). As
of 2012, there were 651 ha (1,609 ac) of dry forest habitat remaining
that is suitable for the Honduran emerald hummingbird (Perez and Thorn
2012, pers. comm.; Thorn et al. 2000 in Anderson 2010, p. 6). The
Honduran Emerald Reserve is guarded by Honduran Air Force soldiers, who
patrol the reserve and do not allow visitors into the protected area
without prior permission (Hyman 2012 pers. comm.). However, cattle from
neighboring land owners are frequently found grazing uncontrolled on
the property within Honduran emerald habitat (Steiner 2011, p. 1; House
2004, p. 30). Despite conservation efforts, land owners around the
protected area want to expand their properties and are cutting more
suitable habitat in order to plant grass for cattle grazing (Hyman and
Steiner 2012, pers. comm.). Because encroachment and livestock grazing
continue to occur both around and in the protected area, and this
species requires more suitable habitat than what exists in this
protected area, this area is insufficient to provide adequate suitable
habitat for this species.
Another entity working towards conservation of the Honduran emerald
is the Honduran Biodiversity Research Coalition, which is a group of
scientists and conservationists established in 2011 that undertakes and
promotes biodiversity research and conservation in Honduras. The
American Bird Conservancy is another NGO working to protect this
species. One of its current goals is to work towards the development of
a payment for ecosystems services project in the Agalta Valley to
restore and protect Honduran emerald hummingbird habitat.
In conclusion, Honduras is improving its management of its
resources (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
2010). However, most of the habitat required by the Honduran emerald
hummingbird is privately owned, and the thorn forests are being
converted to other uses that are not suitable for this species. Despite
the progress made in Honduras with respect to laws and regulatory
mechanisms in place to protect the Honduran emerald hummingbird, the
species continues to face habitat degradation and fragmentation.
Finding (Listing Determination)
A species is ``endangered'' for purposes of the Act if it is in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range. A species is ``threatened'' for purposes of the Act if it is
likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future
throughout all or a significant portion of
[[Page 45096]]
its range. Thus, in the context of the Act, the Service interprets an
``endangered species'' to be one that is presently in danger of
extinction. A ``threatened species,'' on the other hand, is not
presently in danger of extinction, but is likely to become so in the
foreseeable future. In other words, the primary statutory difference
between a threatened and endangered species is the timing of when a
species may be in danger of extinction, either presently (endangered)
or in the foreseeable future (threatened). The statute requires us to
determine whether any species is endangered or threatened as a result
of any one or combination of the following five factors in section
4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B)
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence. In considering what factors might
constitute threats to a species, we must look beyond the mere exposure
of the species to the factor to evaluate whether the species may
respond to the factor in a way that causes actual impacts to the
species. If there is exposure to a factor and the species responds
negatively, the factor may be a threat and we attempt to determine how
significant a threat it is. The threat is significant if it drives, or
contributes to, the risk of extinction of the species such that the
species may warrant listing as endangered or threatened as those terms
are defined in the Act. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act requires us to
make this determination based solely on the best available scientific
and commercial data available after conducting a review of the status
of the species and taking into account any efforts being made by States
or foreign governments to protect the species.
In assessing whether the Honduran emerald hummingbird meets the
definition of an endangered species or a threatened species, we
considered the five factors in section 4(a)(1) of the Act. We conducted
a review of the status of this species and assessed whether the
Honduran emerald hummingbird is endangered or threatened throughout all
or a significant portion of its range. We also reviewed all information
we received during the public comment period. We have assessed the best
scientific and commercial information available regarding the past,
present, and future threats affecting this species.
This species requires a constant source of energy, primarily in the
form of nectar and insects. In order to meet its energy and nutritional
requirements, this species needs access to intact, suitable habitat
with a diversity of plant species that contain abundant energy sources
throughout the year.
We find that habitat loss due to conversion to agricultural
development and cattle pastures is the main factor affecting the
Honduran emerald hummingbird throughout its range (Factor A) (Komar et
al. 2013, p. 40; Anderson et al. 2013, pp. 1-15; Bonta 2012 pers.
comm.; Perez and Thorn 2012 pers. comm.). Habitat degradation and loss
continue to occur and affect the species throughout its range.
Uncontrolled clearing of the Honduran emerald's dry forest habitat for
pastures or plantation agriculture has restricted the species to a few
small, isolated ``islands'' of suitable dry forest habitat surrounded
by banana plantations or cattle ranches (Perez and Thorn 2012, pers.
comm.). Its current occupied and suitable range has been greatly
reduced and is severely fragmented. This hummingbird species is
expending more energy in order to find food sources to meet its
nutritional needs, and as its suitable habitat becomes more scarce and
fragmented, these habitat islands are growing farther apart.
Historically, the Honduran emerald hummingbird existed in more
continuous, connected habitat. Its suitable habitat has become
increasingly limited, and it is not likely to expand in the future.
This species' population is estimated to be between 5,000 and 10,000
breeding pairs distributed over seven valleys in Honduras. A lack of a
sufficient number of individuals in a local area or a decline in their
individual or collective fitness may cause a decline in the population
size, despite the presence of suitable habitat patches. In cases where
populations are small, effects on the species are exacerbated. Any loss
of potentially reproducing individuals could have a devastating effect
on the ability of the population to increase.
A species may be affected by more than one factor, and these
factors can act in combination. The most significant factor affecting
the Honduran emerald hummingbird is the degradation, fragmentation, and
loss of suitable habitat (Factor A). Fragmentation and isolation of
populations can decrease the fitness and reproductive potential of the
species, which exacerbate other threats. Changes in Honduras' climate
are acting in combination with other factors to affect this species'
habitat. Extreme weather events (an increase in the severity and
frequency in hurricanes and increased periods of drought (Factor E))
are impacting this species' habitat.
The species' small population size (Factor E), combined with its
restricted and severely fragmented range (factor A), increase the
species' vulnerability to adverse natural events (Factor E) that
destroy individuals and their habitat. The species' potential exposure
to extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, extended periods of
drought, or flooding, in combination with habitat degradation and
fragmentation, is currently affecting the continued existence of the
species throughout its range now and in the future.
In conclusion, we have carefully assessed the best scientific and
commercial information available regarding the past, present, and
future threats affecting this species. We have identified multiple
factors that have interrelated impacts on this species. These factors
occur at a scale sufficient to affect the status of the species now and
in the future. The most significant threat is habitat degradation and
fragmentation due to conversion from thorn forest to agriculture and
cattle pastures. Both biotic and abiotic ecological interactions
influence species' distributions (Jankowski et al. 2010, pp. 1877-1883;
Dunn et al. 2009, pp. 3037-3041). This species requires an environment
that contains particular temperature and humidity levels, nectar, and
insects. As a species' status continues to decline, the species becomes
increasingly vulnerable to other impacts. The species' small population
size, its reproductive and life-history traits, combined with its
highly restricted and severely fragmented range, increases this
species' vulnerability to one or more stochastic (random or
unpredictable) events, such as hurricanes, drought, or flooding. These
factors, in combination, are believed to be affecting the continued
existence of the species throughout its range now and in the future.
Based on our evaluation of the best available scientific and
commercial information and given the significant loss, degradation, and
fragmentation of suitable habitat, we have determined the species is in
danger of extinction throughout all of its range and thus meets the
definition of an endangered species. Because the species is in danger
of extinction now, as opposed to likely to become an endangered species
within the foreseeable future, the Honduran emerald hummingbird meets
the definition of an endangered species rather than a threatened
species. Therefore, we are listing the Honduran
[[Page 45097]]
emerald hummingbird as endangered under the Act.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include recognition, requirements for Federal
protection, and prohibitions against certain practices. Recognition
through listing results in public awareness, and encourages and results
in conservation actions by Federal and State governments, private
agencies and interest groups, and individuals.
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, and as implemented by
regulations at 50 CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies to evaluate
their actions within the United States or on the high seas with respect
to any species that is proposed or listed as endangered or threatened
and with respect to its critical habitat, if any is being designated.
However, given that the Honduran emerald hummingbird is not native to
the United States, we are not designating critical habitat for this
species under section 4 of the Act.
Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the provision of limited
financial assistance for the development and management of programs
that the Secretary of the Interior determines to be necessary or useful
for the conservation of endangered and threatened species in foreign
countries. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) of the Act authorize the Secretary to
encourage conservation programs for foreign endangered species and to
provide assistance for such programs in the form of personnel and the
training of personnel.
The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered and
threatened wildlife. These prohibitions, at 50 CFR 17.21 and 17.31, in
part, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the
United States to ``take'' (includes harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot,
wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or to attempt any of these)
within the United States or upon the high seas; import or export;
deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate commerce in
the course of commercial activity; or sell or offer for sale in
interstate or foreign commerce any endangered wildlife species. It also
is illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any
such wildlife that has been taken in violation of the Act. Certain
exceptions apply to agents of the Service and State conservation
agencies.
Permits may be issued to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered and threatened wildlife species under certain
circumstances. Regulations governing permits for endangered species are
codified at 50 CFR 17.22. With regard to endangered wildlife, a permit
may be issued for the following purposes: For scientific purposes, to
enhance the propagation or survival of the species, and for incidental
take in connection with otherwise lawful activities.
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
We have determined that environmental assessments and environmental
impact statements, as defined under the authority of the National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be
prepared in connection with regulations adopted under section 4(a) of
the Act. We published a notice outlining our reasons for this
determination in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR
49244).
References Cited
A complete list of all references cited in this rule is available
on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov or upon request from the
Branch of Foreign Species, Ecological Services Program, U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Author
The primary author of this rule is the staff of the Branch of
Foreign Species, Ecological Services Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service.
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.
Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, we amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50
of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth below:
PART 17--[AMENDED]
0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 1531-1544; 4201-4245, unless
otherwise noted.
0
2. Amend Sec. 17.11(h) by adding a new entry for ``Hummingbird,
Honduran emerald'' in alphabetical order under BIRDS to the List of
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife to read as follows:
Sec. 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
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Species Vertebrate
------------------------------------------------------- population where Critical Special
Historic range endangered or Status When listed habitat rules
Common name Scientific name threatened
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* * * * * * *
Birds
* * * * * * *
Hummingbird, Honduran emerald.... Amazilia luciae.... Honduras........... Entire............. E 805 NA NA
* * * * * * *
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* * * * *
Dated: July 15, 2015.
James Kurth,
Acting Deputy Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2015-18602 Filed 7-28-15; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P