[Federal Register Volume 79, Number 238 (Thursday, December 11, 2014)]
[Rules and Regulations]
[Pages 73705-73748]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2014-28338]
[[Page 73705]]
Vol. 79
Thursday,
No. 238
December 11, 2014
Part II
Department of the Interior
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Fish and Wildlife Service
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Species
Status for the Rufa Red Knot; Final Rule
Federal Register / Vol. 79 , No. 238 / Thursday, December 11, 2014 /
Rules and Regulations
[[Page 73706]]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-R5-ES-2013-0097; 4500030113]
RIN 1018-AY17
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Species
Status for the Rufa Red Knot
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Final rule.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), determine
threatened species status under the Endangered Species Act of 1973
(Act), as amended, for the rufa red knot (Calidris canutus rufa). The
rufa red knot is a migratory shorebird that breeds in the Canadian
Arctic, winters in parts of the United States, the Caribbean, and South
America, and primarily uses well-known spring and fall stopover areas
on the Atlantic coast of the United States, although some follow a
midcontinental migratory route. The effect of this regulation will be
to add this species to the list of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife.
DATES: This rule becomes effective January 12, 2015.
ADDRESSES: This final rule is available on the internet at http://www.regulations.gov at Docket Number FWS-R5-ES-2013-0097 and at http://www.fws.gov/northeast/redknot/. Comments and materials we received, as
well as supporting documentation we used in preparing this rule, are
available for public inspection at http://www.regulations.gov. All of
the comments, materials, and documentation that we considered in this
rulemaking are available by appointment, during normal business hours
at: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, New Jersey Field Office (see FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Eric Schrading, Field Supervisor, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, New Jersey Field Office, 927 North Main
Street, Building D, Pleasantville, New Jersey 08232, by telephone 609-
383-3938 or by facsimile 609-646-0352. Persons who use a
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Executive Summary
Why we need to publish a rule. Under the Endangered Species Act, a
species may warrant protection through listing if it is endangered or
threatened throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
Listing a species as an endangered or threatened species can only be
completed by issuing a rule.
This rule will finalize the listing of the rufa red knot (Calidris
canutus rufa) as a threatened species.
The basis for our action. Under the Endangered Species Act, we may
determine that a species is an endangered or threatened species based
on any of five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction,
modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B)
Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence. We have determined that the rufa red
knot is a threatened species due to loss of both breeding and
nonbreeding habitat; likely effects related to disruption of natural
predator cycles on the breeding grounds; reduced prey availability
throughout the nonbreeding range; and increasing frequency and severity
of asynchronies (mismatches) in the timing of the birds' annual
migratory cycle relative to favorable food and weather conditions.
Peer review and public comment. We sought comments from three
independent specialists with expertise on red knot biology and sea
level rise to ensure that our designation is based on scientifically
sound data, assumptions, and analyses. We invited these peer reviewers
to comment on our listing proposal. Only one of the three peer
reviewers provided comments on the proposal. This peer reviewer was
generally supportive of the proposal, and provided substantive comments
and documentation regarding biological differences between red knots in
northern versus southern wintering areas. Many of these differences
were already in the proposal but in separate locations; we consolidated
and emphasized these differences, updating as appropriate with new
information.
Previous Federal Action
Please refer to the proposed listing rule for the rufa red knot (78
FR 60024; September 30, 2013) and its Previous Actions supplement
available online at www.regulations.gov under Docket Number FWS-R5-ES-
2013-0097 for a detailed description of previous Federal actions
concerning this species.
Background
Species Information
The rufa red knot (Calidris canutus rufa) is a medium-sized
shorebird about 9 to 11 inches (in) (23 to 28 centimeters (cm)) in
length. (Throughout this document, ``rufa red knot,'' ``red knot,'' and
``knot'' are used interchangeably to refer to the rufa subspecies.
``Calidris canutus'' and ``C. canutus'' are used to refer to the
species as a whole or to birds of unknown subspecies. References to
other particular subspecies are so indicated.) The red knot migrates
annually between its breeding grounds in the Canadian Arctic and
several wintering regions, including the Southeast United States
(Southeast), the Northeast Gulf of Mexico, northern Brazil, and Tierra
del Fuego at the southern tip of South America. During both the
northbound (spring) and southbound (fall) migrations, red knots use key
staging and stopover areas to rest and feed.
The November 2014 Rufa Red Knot Background Information and Threats
Assessment (Supplemental Document; Service 2014, entire), available
online at www.regulations.gov under Docket Number FWS-R5-ES-2013-0097,
provides a thorough assessment of the rufa red knot biology and
ecology, historical distribution and abundance, population surveys and
estimates, and threats to its survival. The Supplemental Document has
been updated since the September 30, 2013 publication of the proposed
rule with data received during the peer review and public comment
processes and relevant scientific data that have become available. In
the Supplemental Document, we compile biological data and a description
of past, present, and likely future threats facing the red knot.
Because data in these areas of science can be limited, some
uncertainties are associated with the data and conclusions drawn from
the data. We have attempted to clearly identify these uncertainties and
assumptions, which are based on the best available scientific and
commercial data, explicit in the Supplemental Document. The
Supplemental Document provides the scientific basis for our decision
(see Summary of Biological Status and Threats in this final rule), the
legal basis for which is the Act and its regulations and policies (see
Determination in this final rule).
Summary of Biological Status and Threats
In this section, we summarize the population and threats
information previously provided in the proposed
[[Page 73707]]
rule (78 FR 60024; September 30, 2013) and updated as appropriate from
new information received since the proposed rule's publication. See the
Summary of Changes from the Proposed Rule section below for what has
been updated.
We note that the proposed rule referenced four separate documents
of supporting material--Previous Federal Actions, Rufa Red Knot Ecology
and Abundance, Climate Change Background, and Factor D: The Inadequacy
of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms. For this final rule, we have
combined those documents into one Supplemental Document. From here
forward, when we are referencing information in the proposed rule, we
will use the proposed rule's Federal Register citation and page number
(e.g., 78 FR 60024, p. 60032); when we are referencing information in
one of the proposed rule's supporting documents, we will use the
document's name and page number (e.g., Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance, p. 5); and when we are referencing information now contained
in the final rule's Supplemental Document, we will use the Supplemental
Document's title and section (e.g., Supplemental Document, Factor E--
Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest).
Population Information: After a thorough review of the best
available population data, we conclude that we do not have sufficient
reliable data on which to derive a precise rangewide population
estimate for the rufa red knot. For example, there are no rangewide
population estimates for fall migration or breeding areas because birds
are too dispersed. We have limited confidence in any population trends
inferred from wintering areas in Brazil's north coast, the northern
Gulf coast, and the Southeast United States because available data from
these areas vary in geographic coverage, methods, and level of effort.
However, there are several areas where surveys have been conducted
using more consistent observers, methods, and geographic coverage:
Tierra del Fuego and the Argentine coast (winter), Delaware Bay
(spring), the east coast of South America (spring), and Virginia
(spring).
For Tierra del Fuego, baseline population data are available from
the 1980s, and annual counts are available from 2000 to 2013, all
collected with the same methodology and surveyors. The most recent
counts (2011 to 2013) are about 75 percent lower than the 1980s
baseline. The annual counts (2000 to 2013) show that the decline began
after 2000, but the population has apparently stabilized at a low level
since 2011.
For Delaware Bay, baseline data are available from the early 1980s,
and annual peak counts are available for 1986 to 2014. The core years
of 1986 to 2008 were collected with consistent methodology and
surveyors. Based on these data, there may have been declines in the
Delaware Bay stopover population in the 1990s, but variability in the
data makes it difficult to detect trends. In contrast, the decline in
Delaware Bay red knot counts in the 2000s was sufficiently pronounced
and sustained that we have confidence in the downward trend over this
time period despite the variability in the data. The average of peak
counts in Delaware Bay over the past decade (2005 to 2014) was about 70
percent lower than the 1980s baseline. However, Delaware Bay numbers
appear to have stabilized or increased slightly from 2009 to 2014,
despite our lower confidence in the data over this later period due to
shifts in methodology and surveyors.
Data sets from three South American Atlantic coast spring stopovers
also suggest declines roughly over this same timeframe (early 2000s
relative to 1990s). We previously concluded that the Virginia spring
stopover had been stable since the mid-1990s, but new information now
indicates a decline in Virginia relative to the 1990s.
In summary, our analysis of the best available data concludes that
an overall, sustained decline of red knot numbers occurred at Tierra
del Fuego and Delaware Bay in the 2000s, and that these red knot
populations may have stabilized at a relatively low level in the last
few years. Although we lack sufficiently robust data to conclude if
other wintering and stopover areas also declined, we conclude it is
likely that declines at Tierra del Fuego and Delaware Bay drove an
overall population decline (i.e., lower total numbers), because these
two sites supported a large majority of rangewide knots during the
baseline 1980s period. This conclusion is consistent with efforts (by
others) to evaluate long-term population trends using national or
regional data from volunteer shorebird surveys and other sources, which
have also generally concluded that red knot numbers have declined.
Please refer to this final rule's Supplemental Document--Population
Surveys and Estimates for a more detailed discussion of the population
information available for the rufa red knot throughout its range,
available online at www.regulations.gov under Docket FWS-R5-ES-2013-
0097.
Threats: Substantial threats exist throughout the red knot's
breeding, migration, and wintering range and these threats are likely
to continue or intensify into the future. For a full discussion of the
five factors (i.e., Factors A, B, C, D, and E) assessed as a basis for
making the listing determination, please see the Supplemental
Document--Summary of Factors Affecting the Species available online at
www.regulations.gov under Docket Number FWS-R5-ES-2013-0097. A summary
is provided below:
(1) Past habitat losses in wintering and migration areas have
reduced the resilience of the red knot (Factor A). Ongoing losses in
these areas from sea level rise, shoreline hardening, and development
are expected to continue into the coming decades (Factor A). Beach
nourishment can be beneficial or detrimental to red knot habitat,
though any negative effects are mostly considered to be short-term.
More recently, vegetation and ecosystem changes resulting from climate
change, and potentially from development, have begun to threaten
habitat loss on the breeding grounds as well (Factor A).
(2) Threats to the current and future quality and quantity of prey
resources occur throughout the red knot's range from climate change and
other causes (e.g., ocean acidification; warming coastal waters; marine
diseases, parasites, and invasive species; sediment placement;
recreation; and fisheries) (Factor E). Reduced food availability in
Delaware Bay due to commercial harvest of the horseshoe crab (Limulus
polyphemus) (HSC) is considered a primary causal factor in red knot
population declines in the 2000s. (Red knots rely on horseshoe crab
eggs as food during their spring stopover in Delaware Bay.) We do not
consider the HSC harvest a threat under the science-based management
framework that has been developed and adopted to explicitly link
harvest quotas to red knot population growth (Factor D). However, HSC
monitoring necessary for the implementation of the management framework
was not conducted in 2013 or 2014 due to lack of funding; thus, the
framework is not currently being implemented as it was intended to
function. There is uncertainty regarding implementation of the
framework in the future (Factor D). While we anticipate a fully
functioning management framework would continue to adequately abate the
threat to red knots from the HSC harvest, there are other biological
factors independent of harvest that may limit the availability of HSC
eggs into the future. For example, HSC population growth may be limited
by a biological lag time because HSCs take up to 10-years to become
sexually
[[Page 73708]]
mature and therefore it may take at least that long for harvest
restrictions (which have been phased in since 2000) to produce a
corresponding increase in HSC populations. Other factors (e.g., early
life stage mortality, undocumented or underreported mortality) may also
be slowing HSC population growth (Factor E). Most data suggest that the
volume of horseshoe crab eggs is currently sufficient to support the
Delaware Bay's stopover population of red knots at its present size.
However, because of the uncertain trajectory of horseshoe crab
population growth, it is not yet known if the HSC egg resource will
continue to adequately support red knot population growth over the next
decade.
(3) The red knot faces ongoing and future increases in asynchronies
(timing mismatches) throughout its migration and breeding range as a
result of climate change and unknown causes (Factor E). Successful
annual migration and breeding of red knots is highly dependent on the
timing of departures and arrivals to coincide with favorable food and
weather conditions in the spring and fall migratory stopover areas and
on the Arctic breeding grounds (Factor E).
(4) On the arctic breeding grounds, normal 3- to 4-year cycles of
high predation, mediated by rodent (e.g., lemming) cycles, result in
years with low reproductive output of red knots (in some years it is
zero), but do not threaten the survival of the red knot at the
subspecies level (Factor C). That is, when lemmings are abundant,
predators (e.g., arctic fox) concentrate on the lemmings, and
shorebirds breed successfully, but when lemmings are in short supply,
predators switch to shorebird eggs and chicks (Niles et al. 2008, p.
101; COSEWIC 2007, p. 19; Meltofte et al. 2007, p. 21; USFWS 2003, p.
23; Blomqvist et al. 2002, p. 152; Summers and Underhill 1987, p. 169).
It is believed shorebirds, such as red knots, have adapted to these
cycles, therefore these natural cycles are not considered a threat to
the red knot. What is a threat, however, is that these natural rodent/
predator cycles are being disrupted by climate change, which may
increase predation rates on shorebirds over the long term and have
subspecies-level effects (Factor C and Factor E) (Chapter 28 in IPCC
2014, p. 14; Fraser et al. 2013, pp. 13, 16; Brommer et al. 2010, p.
577; Ims et al. 2008, p. 79; Kausrud et al. 2008, p. 98). The
documented collapse or dampening of rodent (e.g., lemmings) population
cycles of over the last 20 to 30 years in parts of the Arctic can be
attributed to climate change with ``high confidence'' (Chapter 28 in
IPCC 2014, p. 14). We conclude that disruptions in the rodent/predator
cycle pose a substantial threat to the red knot, as they may result in
prolonged periods of low reproductive output of red knots due to
increased predation (Factor C). The substantial impacts of elevated egg
and chick predation on shorebird reproduction are well known.
Disruptions in the rodent/predator cycle may have already affected red
knot populations and are likely to increase due to climate change
(Factor C).
Other factors may cause additive red knot mortality. Individually
these factors are not expected to have subspecies level effects;
however, cumulatively, these factors could exacerbate the effects of
the primary threats if they further reduce the species' resiliency.
These secondary factors include hunting (Factor B); predation in
nonbreeding areas (Factor C); and human disturbance, oil spills, and
wind energy development especially near the coasts (Factor E).
In summary, the rufa red knot faces numerous threats across its
range on multiple geographic and temporal scales. These threats are
affecting the subspecies now and will continue to have subspecies-level
effects into the future.
Summary of Changes From the Proposed Rule
The following minor but substantive changes have been made to the
listing rule and the Supplemental Document (available online at
www.regulations.gov under Docket FWS-R5-ES-2013-0097) based on new
information that has become available since the publication of the
proposed rule, including information received through peer review and
public comments. These changes did not alter our previous assessment of
the rufa red knot from the proposed rule to the final rule.
(1) We present new data and insights regarding the nonbreeding
distributions of rufa red knots versus Calidris canutus roselaari.
(2) We have emphasized and consolidated information about the
differences between rufa red knots from northern versus southern
wintering areas.
(3) We have added new geolocator data and new analyses of available
resightings data showing (a) movement of rufa red knots between the
North American Central and Atlantic Flyways; (b) clusters of sightings
along the Great Lakes, the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and
other major water bodies away from the coasts; (c) apparent use of
saline (or alkaline) lakes in the Northern Plains by northbound red
knots using the Central Flyway; and (d) use of U.S. Atlantic coast
habitats used by juveniles in summer and winter.
(4) We updated population information with winter counts in South
America and the southeast United States. The 2013 red knot winter
counts in Tierra del Fuego were down to the second lowest level on
record, while the counts in northern Brazil were nearly double the
previous high count recorded in 1986. The large number of knots found
in Brazil in 2013 was likely the result of the survey team experiencing
favorable tidal conditions throughout the survey period, and this is
probably the team's best aerial survey estimate to date. In addition, a
new report from the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GDNR)
based on mark-recapture mathematical models estimated that the northern
wintering population may be around 20,000 birds; this number is
consistent with some previous estimates but notably higher than the
best available field survey from the Southeast of about 4,000 to 5,000
birds. However, we do not yet have information to determine whether the
geographic extent of the ``northern'' population in the GDNR study
includes areas outside the Southeast.
(5) We updated our analysis of climate change information based on
new reports from the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and
National Climate Assessment. Updates include:
(a) The IPCC's increased certainty in the overall trajectory of
global and regional climate changes over the next few decades.
(b) Recent assessments of the red knot's vulnerability to climate
change indicating a large increase in extinction risk due to the likely
loss of breeding (from arctic warming) and nonbreeding habitat (from
sea level rise), as well as the red knot's high degree of habitat
specialization and dependence on ecological synchronicities, and long
migration distance.
(c) New reports finding, with high certainty, that arctic ecosystem
changes are already under way and will continue, in some cases faster
than previously anticipated. (The IPCC notes early warning signs that
arctic ecosystems are already experiencing irreversible regime shifts.)
(d) A new conclusion by the IPCC that the documented collapse or
dampening of rodent population cycles in some parts of the Arctic over
the last 20 to 30 years can be attributed to climate change with ``high
confidence.''
(e) An updated analysis of threats to red knot prey species from
ocean acidification, temperature changes, and other aspects of climate
change. (A new
[[Page 73709]]
report highlights the vulnerability of mollusks (which include the red
knot's primary prey species in most of its range) to acidification
(``high confidence'').)
(6) We updated the best available data regarding current and likely
future rates of sea level rise. We also noted a new study showing that
expected effects to migratory shorebird populations from sea level rise
are disproportionally larger than the extent of projected habitat loss,
especially for species (such as red knots) whose migration routes
contain ``bottlenecks'' through which a large fraction of the
population passes.
(7) We discussed new voluntary, regulatory, or proposed
restrictions on red knot hunting (e.g., in Barbados, Guadeloupe,
Martinique, and French Guiana), but acknowledged that best available
data are insufficient to determine if hunting is or was at levels in
South America that may have a population-level effect.
(8) We updated Federal and State authorities to regulate the
importation of Asian HSC species, which may pose a threat to native HSC
populations.
(9) We noted the results of the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries
Commission's (ASMFC) 2013 HSC stock assessment update showing that, in
the Delaware Bay Region, there is evidence of increases in certain age
or sex classes, but overall population trends have been largely stable
(neither increasing nor decreasing) since the previous stock assessment
in 2009.
(10) We updated our analysis of possible undocumented or
underestimated HSC mortality with new information on poaching, bycatch,
and sublethal effects of biomedical bleeding.
(11) We updated the discussion as follows about the Adaptive
Resource Management (ARM) monitoring efforts to reflect uncertainty
(due to lack of funding) in ongoing implementation:
(a) We continue to conclude that, as long as the ARM is in place
and functioning as intended, ongoing HSC bait harvests should not be a
threat to the red knot.
(b) Data necessary to support the ARM previously came from an
annual HSC trawl survey conducted by the Virginia Polytechnic Institute
(Virginia Tech) that was ended after 2012 due to lack of funding. The
ARM modelers are working on the best way to switch to another, newer
survey, the North East Area Monitoring and Assessment Program (NEAMAP),
and we support those efforts.
(c) As of fall 2014, however, these efforts have not identified a
method by which NEAMAP or other alternate data sets can be
appropriately used to allow the functioning of the ARM models (ASMFC
2014b). Stable funding sources for other baywide monitoring programs
necessary to support the ARM are also a concern.
(d) If the ARM cannot be implemented in any given year, ASMFC would
choose between two options based on which it determines to be more
appropriate--either use the previous year's harvest levels (as
previously set by the ARM), or revert to an earlier management regime.
Although the HSC fishery would continue to be managed under either of
these options, the explicit link to red knot populations would be lost.
(e) Insufficient monitoring has already impacted the ability of the
ASMFC to implement the ARM as intended (ASMFC 2014b; ASMFC 2012c, p.
13). Absent the necessary HSC monitoring data to use the ARM models for
the 2015 season, ASMFC (2014b) has opted to use the 2014 harvest levels
which we considered at the time to adequately ensure the red knot's
food supply.
(12) We updated our analysis of disturbance with new findings from
two sites on the Atlantic coast of New Jersey, showing that disturbance
affected red knots' spatial uses of these sites and displaced knots
from otherwise suitable habitats.
(13) We reorganized the wind energy development discussion by
moving general information on avian collision and displacement hazards
to a background section, not specific to either offshore or terrestrial
development. We updated this section with new information including a
new report on avian vulnerability to offshore wind development. We
updated our conclusions that collision and displacement risks per
turbine (notwithstanding differences in specific factors such as
turbine size, design, operation, and siting) are likely higher along
the coasts than far inland or far offshore.
(14) We updated the 50 CFR 17.11 table to add Martinique and the
District of Columbia. We received new information that red knots occur
on Martinique. The District of Columbia was already included in the
known range of the red knot, but was inadvertently left off the table
in the proposed rule.
Summary of Comments and Recommendations
In the proposed rule published on September 30, 2013 (78 FR 60024),
we requested that all interested parties submit written comments on the
proposal by November 29, 2013. We also contacted appropriate Federal
and State agencies, scientific experts and organizations, and other
interested parties and invited them to comment on the proposal. A
newspaper notice inviting general public comment was published in the
USA Today on October 3, 2013. We received four requests for a public
hearing. On April 4, 2014 (79 FR 18869), we reopened the comment period
on the proposed rule until May 19, 2014, and announced that two public
hearings would take place on May 6, 2014, in Corpus Christi, Texas, and
Morehead City, North Carolina. On May 14, 2014 (79 FR 27548), we
extended the public comment period until June 15, 2014, and announced
that another public hearing would take place in Manteo, North Carolina
on June 5, 2014. All substantive information provided during the
comment periods is summarized above in the Summary of Changes from the
Proposed Rule and has either been incorporated directly into this final
determination or addressed in the more specific response to comments
below.
A number of commenters, including a peer reviewer, Federal
agencies, and States, provided new information or clarifications on
information presented in the red knot proposed listing rule (78 FR
60024) and its supporting documents. Categories of new or clarified
information include additional years of population estimates or
sighting information throughout the rufa red knot's range, status of
the rufa red knot and ecology in Argentina and French Guiana, beach
cleaning, sea level rise and its projected effects on migratory
shorebirds, disturbance, the Deepwater Horizon and Galveston oil
spills, status of offshore wind energy development leases along the
Atlantic coast, historical and current food resources and foraging
habitat, migration and staging areas, updated stopover population size
estimates in Delaware Bay, State restrictions on importing Asian HSC,
ongoing management of HSC, habitat protection in Maine, and geolocator
scope of inference. This new or clarified information has been
incorporated, as appropriate, into this final rule or its Supplemental
Document.
General Issues
(1) Comment: Several public, State, and Federal commenters
submitted comments on topics related to other issues not specific to
the red knot listing proposal. These issues include (a) general
criticism of the Act (funding species' conservation and Service
employees being a target of litigation, imposing fines that are too
punitive, having negative effects on local
[[Page 73710]]
communities, producing decisions on which species survive and where
public hearings are held, and using science that would not withstand
National Academy of Science Review); (b) the information and analysis
required to designate critical habitat; and (c) red knot or HSC
population targets, other species, research, actions, or resources that
should be considered, as well as where funding should be directed and
whom the Service should work with as part of ongoing or future
conservation activities and recovery planning for the rufa red knot.
Our Response: All of these comments are outside the scope of this
final listing rule and will not be addressed here. Substantive comments
related to critical habitat issues will be addressed during development
of a proposed critical habitat rule for the red knot. Substantive
comments related to future conservation of the red knot will be
addressed during the development of a recovery outline and draft
recovery plan.
(2) Comment: Several commenters, including one State, expressed
concerns that the rufa red knot's listing could (a) result in
restrictions on pedestrian and vehicular beach recreation, additional
regulatory hurdles, decreased property values, and increased costs to
otherwise lawful activities, all of which could cause negative effects
to local communities, economies, and quality of life, and could erode
the current goodwill of partners to work on red knot conservation; (b)
result in reduced HSC harvest levels, causing economic impacts to
fishermen reliant on the HSC bait fishery, potentially shifting harvest
pressure to areas outside of Delaware Bay, and potentially creating
incentives to import Asian HSC species for bait; (c) reduce
availability of HSCs for biomedical uses; and (d) restrict beach access
for HSC conservation programs (e.g., rescue programs for volunteers to
flip stranded crabs). Additionally, some commenters expressed
frustration over existing beach access and management on National Park
Service (NPS) lands because of other listed species and asked for
expanded management options beyond beach closures. Conversely, other
commenters asked for additional restrictions in places like Delaware
Bay.
Our Response: While we appreciate the concern about potential
management actions that may result from listing the rufa red knot or
any species, the Act does not allow us to factor those concerns into
our listing decision. Section 4(a)(1) of the Act specifies that we
shall determine whether any species is threatened or endangered because
of any of the following factors: (A) The present or threatened
destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B)
overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence. Section 4(b)(1)(A) further specifies
that we shall make such determinations based solely on the best
scientific and commercial data available. See Our Response 60 regarding
other implications of listing that we may not consider in evaluating
whether a species meets the definition of threatened or endangered
under the Act.
The Service does not make management decisions about any lands
other than National Wildlife Refuges and National Hatcheries, but we
remain committed to working with coastal communities to evaluate any
effects of coastal management on the rufa red knot, and to implement
actions in a manner consistent with the species' conservation using
many of the Act's available tools. We will strive to build on existing
management practices in local areas to limit disturbance to red knots
and other shorebirds through coordination and partnership with the
States, other Federal agencies, conservation groups, and local
communities.
The Service does not have authority to directly regulate the HSC
fishery, but we intend to continue our active role in the ASMFC's
management of the HSC fishery, and will provide recommendations and
technical assistance to ensure that future harvests of HSCs do not
result in take of red knots under section 9 of the Act. See Our
Responses 45, 46, 48 through 50, 52, 111, 117, 120, and 121 below and
the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--
Horseshoe Crab Harvest) for detailed answers related to other aspects
of HSC management, including biomedical use and implications of
importation of Asian HSC species.
(3) Comment: Several commenters asked how listing will benefit the
red knot when its range spans several countries, yet the Act's
jurisdiction is limited to the United States. Many of the threats
discussed in the proposed rule either occur only in areas outside of
the United States (e.g., hunting) or are issues (e.g., climate change)
that cannot be affected by management under the Act. The Service cannot
expect to achieve a fraction of the conservation success that has been
achieved in Delaware Bay, given that the Act's prohibitions do not
apply outside of the United States.
Our Response: The Act requires listing of a species that meets the
definition of threatened or endangered even if we currently lack the
means to fully abate the threats that cause it to be threatened or
endangered. Notwithstanding, we disagree that listing will have no
effect on threats such as adequacy of food supplies and hunting, and we
expect these threats to be addressed during recovery planning. The
development of a recovery plan will guide efforts intended to ensure
the long-term survival and eventual recovery of the rufa red knot, as
discussed in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60097). While we
acknowledge that listing will not have a direct impact on those aspects
of climate change impacting the rufa red knot (e.g., sea level rise,
arctic and ocean warming, ocean acidification, timing changes in the
annual cycles of natural systems, possible changes in storm patterns or
predation pressures), we expect that listing will enhance national and
international cooperation and coordination of conservation efforts,
enhance research programs, and encourage the development of mitigation
measures that could help slow habitat loss and population declines.
Benefits to the species outside the United States from listing
include a prohibition on import. By regulating this activity, the Act
ensures that people under the jurisdiction of the United States do not
contribute to the further decline of listed species. Although the Act's
prohibitions regarding listed species apply only to people subject to
the jurisdiction of the United States, the Act can generate additional
conservation benefits such as increase awareness of listed species,
encourage research efforts to address conservation needs, or prioritize
funding for in-situ conservation of the species in its range countries.
The Act also provides for limited financial assistance to develop and
manage programs to conserve listed species in foreign countries,
encourages conservation programs for such species, and allows for
assistance for programs, such as personnel and training.
While we agree that limiting HSC harvests and other actions in
Delaware Bay have been instrumental in halting (though not yet
reversing) the decline of the red knot, we do not agree that
conservation of this species is impossible in other geographic areas.
For example, the rufa red knot is listed as endangered in Canada and
Argentina, was recently protected from hunting in the Caribbean, has
been listed as a
[[Page 73711]]
protected species in French Guiana, and is a focus of active
conservation programs in several countries including Canada, Argentina,
and Chile. In the United States, there are ongoing conservation and
research efforts in many areas outside Delaware Bay including
Massachusetts, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
Florida, and Texas. Many important red knot areas within and outside
the United States have been recognized as Western Hemisphere Shorebird
Reserve Network sites.
(4) Comment: One commenter stated that the Act is currently under
revision and it is advisable to postpone further listings until the
changes are finalized.
Our Response: While we are aware of several proposed legislative
changes to the Act, those changes may not come to fruition and we may
not delay implementing the current Act while those proposed changes are
being debated. In addition to the proposed legislative changes, we are
actively working on a series of regulatory changes to improve the
implementation of the Act (see our ``Improving ESA Implementation'' Web
site for more information: http://www.fws.gov/endangered/improving_ESA/index.html).
Peer Reviewer Comments
In accordance with our peer review policy published on July 1, 1994
(59 FR 34270), we solicited expert opinion from three knowledgeable
individuals with scientific expertise that included familiarity with
the rufa red knot and its habitat, biological needs, and threats. We
received responses from one of the peer reviewers.
We reviewed all comments received from the peer reviewer for
substantive issues and new information regarding the listing of the
rufa red knot. This peer reviewer was generally supportive of the
overall proposal and, in addition to providing further site-specific
information, generally confirmed our use of the best available
scientific information. Peer reviewer comments are addressed in the
following summary and incorporated into the final rule as appropriate.
(5) Comment: The peer reviewer stated there is nonscientifically
reported evidence (newspaper articles, animal care center reports) that
red tide poisoning has caused extensive death of knots on Florida's
west coast.
Our Response: We appreciate the peer reviewer bringing this
information to our attention. Unfortunately, we were unable to locate
the sources of the suggested information and, therefore, cannot verify
the content. However, we have obtained a report of one nonfatal case of
red tide poisoning of a red knot in Florida (H. Barron pers. comm.
April 29, 2014); the bird's blood was tested and confirmed to have a
brevetoxin level of 2.64 nanograms/milliliter (ng/ml). Brevetoxin is a
highly potent neurotoxin produced by red tide events. We have added
this information to the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Harmful Algal
Blooms--Gulf of Mexico). Though not documenting widespread effects or
mortality from red tide, this report does confirm that red tide
poisoning of red knots has occurred in Florida, which is otherwise
unreported in the scientific literature.
(6) Comment: The peer reviewer noted that the proposed rule (78 FR
60024, p. 60045) states that uncontrolled invasive vegetation can cause
a habitat shift from open or sparsely vegetated sand to dense
vegetation, resulting in the loss or degradation of red knot roosting
habitat. The link between dense invasive vegetation and red knot
habitat degradation is conjecture and should be strengthened with
reference to a scientific study.
Our Response: We agree. We have revised this paragraph in the
Supplemental Document (Factor A--Invasive Vegetation) to add citations
to support the statement that uncontrolled invasive vegetation can
cause a habitat shift from open or sparsely vegetated sand to dense
vegetation. We have removed the wording ``resulting in the loss or
degradation of red knot roosting habitat,'' because we are not aware of
any scientific studies or other data documenting that such degradation
has occurred. We have instead added the statement that, in nonbreeding
habitats, Calidris canutus require sparse vegetation to avoid predation
(Niles et al. 2008, p. 44; Piersma et al. 1993, pp. 338-339, 349).
(7) Comment: The peer reviewer stated that the Southeast coast of
the United States is important during northward migration. Many red
knots marked in Argentina and Chile are seen on the Atlantic coasts of
Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina during, but not
before, May. In addition, several other commenters stated the proposed
rule did not identify North Carolina as having major or important
spring or fall stopover areas.
Our Response: The Southeast, including North Carolina, was
identified in the proposed rule as providing spring and fall stopover
sites (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 18, 50-51). Data
characterizing the stopover usage of the Southeast, including North
Carolina, are presented unchanged in the Supplemental Document (e.g.,
figure 4; Population Surveys and Estimates--Spring Stopover Areas--
Southeast United States). However, we have revised the text of the
Supplemental Document (Population Surveys and Estimates--Spring
Migration) to clarify that our review focused on geographically large
spring stopovers with multiple years of survey data, but that other
important spring stopover areas are known (e.g., from International
Shorebird Survey data, eBird, localized surveys). We have also revised
the wording of the Supplemental Document (Migration--Atlantic Coast) to
refer to ``well-known'' instead of ``major'' or ``important'' spring
and fall stopover areas, since many potentially significant stopover
areas have been surveyed only sporadically or are yet undiscovered.
Finally, we have added the information provided by the peer reviewer
regarding passage of southern-wintering birds along the Southeast coast
during May (Migration--Atlantic Coast--Spring Timing and Distribution).
(8) Comment: The peer reviewer stated the proposed rule presented
comprehensive evidence about threats to red knots during winter and
northbound migration seasons, mostly focused on the longest-distance
migrating knots that winter in Argentina and Chile. However, the
proposed rule presented less information regarding northbound or
southbound passage of the knots that spend winter seasons in regions
north of the Equator. One issue that needs elaboration is the relative
numbers of knots that winter in each of these two large regions and the
differences of habitat use and migration strategies that exist between
them.
Our Response: The proposed rule presented available data regarding
numbers of red knots in each wintering area (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance pp. 38-45), summarized by Atkinson et al. (in Wader Study
Group 2005) and Harrington et al. (2010b) regarding differences in
migration strategy by wintering area (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance pp. 22, 32), and presented information regarding possibly
greater reliance on HSC eggs by migrants from Argentina and Chile
relative to birds from more northern wintering areas (Rufa Red Knot
Ecology and Abundance pp. 31-33). In the Supplemental Document, we have
added a section (Wintering--Northern Versus Southern) to summarize the
differences between red knots from northern versus southern wintering
areas that are discussed elsewhere in the document, moved and
supplemented information to a new section (Migration--Differences in
Migration
[[Page 73712]]
Strategy by Wintering Region) on differences in migration strategies,
and clarified information regarding differential reliance on HSC eggs
(Wintering and Migration Food).
(9) Comment: The peer reviewer noted the proposed rule stated that
red knots require stopovers rich in easily digested food to achieve
adequate weight gain due to changes in the digestive system that birds
undergo before long flights. This may be less true for the knots from
northern wintering grounds.
Our Response: In the proposed rule, we noted this possible
physiological difference between southern- and northern-wintering rufa
red knots (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 30-31), but we did
not mention this possible difference in the section cited by this
commenter (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 17). In the
Supplemental Document (Species Information--Migration--Migration
Biology), we have added a sentence to this paragraph to clarify that
some researchers have suggested that digestive system changes are more
pronounced, or have a more pronounced effect on energy budgets at the
stopover areas, in southern-wintering (Argentina and Chile) than in
northern-wintering (Southeast United States) rufa red knots (Niles et
al. 2008, p. 36; Atkinson et al. 2006b, p. 41). We have also added a
cross reference in this paragraph to refer readers to a more detailed
discussion of this issue that is presented under Migration and
Wintering Food--Horseshoe Crab Eggs--Possible Differential Reliance on
Horseshoe Crab Eggs.
(10) Comment: The peer reviewer suggested the term ``full
segregation'' is unclear with regard to migration strategies, routes,
or stopover areas among red knots from different wintering areas. There
is a good deal of segregation in stopover regimens and in molt regimens
between southbound knots with destinations in Argentina and Chile
versus northern-hemisphere wintering birds. There also appears to be
some degree of difference in stopover habitat use between these two
groups in northbound migration.
Our Response: We have clarified the lack of full segregation by
providing examples in the Supplemental Document (Migration--Differences
in Migration Strategy by Wintering Area). Also see Our Responses 8 and
9 above.
(11) Comment: The peer reviewer stated northern- versus southern-
wintering knots have different strategies in southward migration. The
southern group has essentially passed through Atlantic regions of North
America before September, and strongly depends upon being able to
accumulate fat and protein prior to launching on over-ocean flights
between North and South America. Northern-wintering birds, however,
linger on the North American coast (e.g., Massachusetts, Georgia
coasts), are using ``stopover'' locations as molting areas, and are
using different food and habitat resources as compared to the southern-
wintering knots. The resource requirements by birds of these two groups
during southward migration are quite different.
Our Response: We have added this information with supporting
citations to the new section of the Supplemental Document (Migration--
Differences in Migration Strategy by Wintering Region).
(12) Comment: The peer reviewer noted that, historically, oiling
was perhaps an important problem to knots in Patagonia, and suggested
limited information was available in the reference Harrington and
Morrison 1980.
Our Response: Some of the data from Harrington and Morrison (1980)
were presented in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60086) from a
secondary source (Niles et al. 2008, p. 98). We have added the rest of
these data and this reference to the Supplemental Document (Factor E--
Oil Spills and Leaks--South America).
(13) Comment: The peer reviewer stated that, although the Costa del
Este area of Panama City, Panama (referenced in the proposed rule, 78
FR 60024, p. 60043), is a very important location for many kinds of
shorebirds, few knots have been reported from here.
Our Response: We agree that only moderate numbers of Calidris
canutus have been reported in most seasons from Panama's Pacific coast
(which includes habitats near Panama City as well as other sites).
However, larger numbers have been reported from Pacific Panama during
fall migration. In the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance, pp. 41-42, 52), we presented available data regarding
numbers of C. canutus in Panama. We have consolidated and updated these
data with new information in the Supplemental Document (see Population
Surveys and Estimates--Central America and Pacific South America).
(14) Comment: The peer reviewer stated that recently published data
show dramatic declines and shifting of stopover locations during south
migration in Massachusetts.
Our Response: This information (Harrington et al. 2010a; Harrington
et al. 2010b) was presented in the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology
and Abundance, p. 51). We have expanded the discussion of these results
in the Supplemental Document (Migration--Atlantic Coast--Fall Timing
and Distribution; Population Surveys and Estimates--Fall Stopover
Areas).
(15) Comment: The peer reviewer stated that the proposed rule was
incorrect in describing only small numbers of red knots on mid-Atlantic
and northern Atlantic beaches between Memorial Day and Labor Day.
Currently about 1,000 to 2,000 knots occur on the Massachusetts coast
during the fall migration period, and numbers were previously much
higher. Peak dates for these southbound migrants are in July and
August.
Our Response: This statement appeared in the section of the
proposed rule addressing beach cleaning (78 FR 60045). We have revised
the Supplemental Document (Population Surveys and Estimates--Fall
Stopover Areas; Factor A--Beach Cleaning) to correct this information.
(16) Comment: The peer reviewer stated that there has been a major
shift of key stopover areas of knots in south migration in
Massachusetts since the 1980s when up to 10,000 southern-wintering
knots were heavily concentrated on the western shore of Cape Cod Bay
(Harrington et al. 2010a).
Our Response: We discussed the findings of Harrington et al.
(2010a) in the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p.
51). We have revised several sections of the Supplemental Document to
provide more specific results from this study (Migration--Differences
in Migration Strategy by Wintering Region; Historical Distribution and
Abundance; Population Surveys and Estimates--Fall Stopover Areas).
(17) Comment: The peer reviewer stated that the proposed rule (78
FR 60024, p. 60046) notes that more red knots were documented in
northeast Brazil in the 2000s than during the early 1980s. The wording
of this paragraph could be misconstrued to suggest that habitats were
improved by the development from shrimp farm ponds.
Our Response: We agree and have clarified this point in the
Supplemental Document (Factor A--Agriculture and Aquaculture).
(18) Comment: The peer reviewer commented that the proposed rule
(78 FR 60024, p. 60045) stated that beach-cleaning machines are likely
to cause disturbance to roosting and foraging red knots. This is more
of an issue with respect to roosting than to foraging. In almost all
cases, raked areas would be
[[Page 73713]]
beaches that knots might use during high tides for roosting (if not for
high levels of human disturbance), but not as sites for foraging. Beach
cleaning generally happens on beaches intensively used for human
recreation. Because of heavy human use, knots that might otherwise
roost in these areas would generally avoid such locations. Thus, the
issue would be disturbance versus beach cleaning.
Our Response: The proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60077) noted that
roosting red knots are particularly vulnerable to disturbance. We have
revised the Supplemental Document to cross-reference this information
under Factor A--Beach Cleaning, and to note in this same section that
beach-cleaning typically occurs along or landward of the high tide line
where red knots may roost but are unlikely to forage. The proposed rule
(78 FR 60024, p. 60044) states that mechanical beach cleaning is most
commonly conducted on beaches that are heavily used for tourism. We
agree that disturbance to red knots from recreational activities may,
on many beaches, be greater than the disturbance from the beach
cleaning machines. However, beach cleaning may occur at times of day
(e.g., early morning, evening) when few recreational activities are
taking place, thus increasing the total daily duration that knots are
disturbed by human activities. Conversely, many raked beaches may have
such high levels of human recreational use that red knots are precluded
from using them entirely; in such cases there would be no incremental
additional disturbance from the raking activities. We have added these
conclusions to the Supplemental Document (Factor A--Beach Cleaning). In
addition, the proposed rule already described (78 FR 60024, p. 60044)
physical impacts to beach habitats from mechanical beach cleaning.
Federal Agency Comments
(19) Comment: One Federal agency provided data regarding the
seasonality and abundance of red knots in or near units managed by the
NPS in the Central and Eastern United States. To assess gross trends in
occurrence of red knots across NPS units, this commenter considered
vetted eBird data points where birding effort was reported, and found
that, in the NPS units where most red knot occurrences were reported
(Assateague Island, Cape Lookout, Cape Hatteras, Cape Cod, Gateway
National Recreation Area, and Timucuan Ecological and Historic
Preserve), a clear declining trend in red knot observations was
detected since 1980.
Our Response: We thank the commenter and have added this trend
information to the Supplemental Document (Population Surveys and
Estimates). The information regarding the seasonality and abundance of
red knots at individual NPS units will be valuable for purposes of
recovery planning, management under section 7(a)(1) of the Act, and
consultation under section 7(a)(2) of the Act.
(20) Comment: One Federal agency noted that several Navy
installations within the range of the red knot have Integrated Natural
Resources Management Plans in place that benefit the red knot,
including provisions for shoreline protection.
Our Response: We appreciate this information and anticipate working
closely with these installations as we develop a critical habitat
designation, and develop and implement a recovery plan for the red
knot.
(21) Comment: One Federal agency commented that the proposed rule
and supporting document overemphasized the risks to the red knot, and
birds in general, associated with offshore wind energy development. In
addition, several States and other commenters stated that wind energy
development outside of coastal areas is unlikely to be a significant
threat to red knots.
Our Response: In both the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60089-
60093) and the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Wind Energy
Development), we have summarized and characterized the best available
data regarding risks to the red knot from both offshore and terrestrial
wind energy development. We have made considerable revisions to this
section of the Supplemental Document to reflect substantive public
comments and new information (see also Our Responses 62, 134 to 137).
We conclude that wind energy development, especially near the coasts,
may cause some unquantifiable amount of red knot mortality into the
foreseeable future, and that one model indicated this species is
vulnerable to population-level effects from even low levels of
anthropogenic mortality (Watts 2010, pp. 1, 39). Unless facilities are
constructed at key stopover or wintering habitats, we do not expect
wind energy development, especially offshore or inland, to cause
significant direct habitat loss or degradation, or displacement of red
knots from otherwise suitable habitats.
(22) Comment: One Federal agency stated that, in addition to the
total number and height of offshore turbines, exposure is a factor
contributing to avian collision risks. For red knots, exposure to
offshore wind facilities is reduced because (1) they can fly nonstop
for 1,500 miles (mi) (2,414 kilometers (km)), which limits their time
over the open ocean, and (2) birds on long-distance flights, such as
red knots crossing the offshore environment, fly at higher altitudes
than short-distant migrants.
Our Response: We agree that exposure to wind turbines is a
contributing factor to avian collision risk. The proposed rule (78 FR
60024, pp. 60090-60091) presented the findings of Burger et al. (2011,
entire), who used a weight-of-evidence approach to examine the risks
and hazards to red knots from offshore wind energy development on the
OCS at three spatial levels of exposure. We concur that the red knot
can fly nonstop for 1,500 mi (2,414 km) and that some knots have
limited temporal exposure to the offshore environment (Normandeau
Associates, Inc. 2011, p. 202). Geolocator data show certain knots
crossing the OCS as many as six times per year, and because these
numbers reflect only long flights, more crossings of the OCS may occur
as birds make shorter flights between States (Burger et al. 2012c, p.
374).
It is estimated that the normal cruising altitude of red knots
during migration is between 3,281 to 9,843 feet (ft) (1,000 to 3,000
meters (m)) (Burger et al. 2011, p. 346), well above the estimated
height of even a 10-megawatt (MW) offshore turbine (681 ft; 207.5 m).
However, lower flight altitudes may be expected when red knots
encounter bad weather or high winds, and these lower flight altitudes
are known to occur on ascent or descent from long-distance flights,
during short-distance flights if they are blown off course, during
short coastal migration flights, or during daily commuting flights
(e.g., between foraging and roosting habitats) (Burger et al. 2012c,
pp. 375-376; Burger et al. 2011, p. 346), as discussed in the proposed
rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60090).
(23) Comment: One Federal agency stated that some studies and
analyses used in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024) fail to distinguish
between onshore/nearshore and offshore wind energy development. This
distinction is important because the species at risk and the magnitude
of the risk can be considerably different. The agency further stated
that coastal environments generally have higher concentrations of birds
than offshore areas and that birds taking off from land may fly through
the rotor zone before reaching cruising elevation. In addition, this
commenter questioned our conclusions about the risk of bird collisions
with offshore wind facilities, which were based on a
[[Page 73714]]
scientific paper (Kuvlesky et al. 2007) summarizing research from
Europe.
Our Response: In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60089-60092),
we addressed separately land-based wind energy development (including
along the coasts) versus in the offshore environment. Based on the high
frequency and lower altitudes of red knot flights along the coast
(e.g., ascent or descent from long-distance flights, during short
coastal migration flights, or during daily commuting flights between
foraging and roosting habitats) (D. Newstead pers. comm. March 5, 2013;
Burger et al. 2012c, pp. 375-376; Burger et al. 2011, p. 346; Stewart
et al. 2007, p. 1; Alerstam et al. 1990, p. 201), we agree with the
commenter that collision risk per turbine (notwithstanding differences
such as size, design, operation, local habitats) along the coasts (both
on land and nearshore) is likely higher than in areas either far
offshore or far inland. We have revised the Supplemental Document
(Factor E--Wind Energy Development--Terrestrial) to reflect this
conclusion. We have also revised the Supplemental Document (Factor E--
Wind Energy Development) to move the discussion of avian collision risk
factors (e.g., weather, light levels, lighting, turbine
characteristics, habitats) and displacement effects to be generalized
across both terrestrial and offshore wind energy facilities, as the
citations supporting this discussion pertain to both.
In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60089-60091), we did not
attempt to differentiate between nearshore (e.g., State waters) and the
OCS. Although we still have little information on avian impacts from
turbines far offshore, we have updated our conclusions in the
Supplemental Document (Factor E--Wind Energy Development--Offshore) to
reflect geolocator results by Burger et al. (2012c, p. 373) and
analysis by Burger et al. (2011, p. 346) suggesting red knot collision
risk may decrease far offshore. Finally, we have removed the following
statement from the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Wind Energy
Development--Offshore): ``Research from Europe, where several offshore
wind facilities are in operation, suggests that bird collision rates
with offshore turbines may be higher than for turbines on land.'' Upon
further review of the source cited for this statement (Kuvlesky et al.
2007, p. 2489), we found that these authors presented results from both
coastal and nearshore wind facilities. Further, these authors went on
to present countervailing findings from other studies, and did not cite
any studies from wind turbines located far offshore. Therefore, we
reasoned that this statement from the Kuvlesky et al. 2007 paper was
not appropriate to include in this final rule.
(24) Comment: One Federal agency commented that the Bureau of Ocean
Energy Management (BOEM) has worked with State Task Forces to determine
the best locations for wind energy development to help avoid impacts.
For example, areas being considered are greater than 9 mi (14 km)
offshore; the Virginia lease area is 23.5 nautical miles (nm) (43.5 km)
from Virginia Beach.
Our Response: We concur that siting far offshore may succeed in
reducing overall avian collision hazards, including for red knots,
although species that rely on the offshore environment for breeding,
feeding, or sheltering (e.g., certain seabirds and waterfowl) may have
increased exposure risk to turbines farther offshore. We appreciate the
work of BOEM to evaluate and minimize avian collision risks in siting
decisions, and this information has been added to the Supplement
Document (Factor E--Wind Energy Development--Offshore). However, we
also updated this section of the Supplemental Document to compare these
distances offshore with red knot use areas delineated by Burger et al.
(2012c, p. 373) based on geolocator results, which do appear to have
some overlap with both the offshore commercial wind energy development
leases executed to date and the Wind Energy Areas (WEA) where BOEM will
focus for future leases, including areas off the mouth of Delaware Bay
(BOEM undated, p. 1).
(25) Comment: One Federal agency stated that BOEM recently
published a study on the relative vulnerability of migratory bird
species to offshore wind energy projects on the Atlantic OCS; the study
ranked the relative vulnerability of 177 migratory bird species to
collision and displacement by offshore wind turbines. The relative
collision vulnerability of red knot was ``medium'' and the relative
vulnerability to displacement ``low.''
Our Response: We have reviewed this report and incorporated the
findings into the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Wind Energy
Development--Offshore). We note that some of the factors considered in
this report are not specific to the rufa subspecies of Calidris
canutus, and thus the numerical vulnerability scores are not applicable
to rufa.
Comments From States
(26) Comment: One State expressed disappointment in the Service's
communication regarding the proposed rule. Because of the wide
geographic scope of this listing proposal, the Service should have
engaged all of the State wildlife agencies for their input prior to
publication and should have briefed the State agency directors about
the proposed expansion of the rufa red knot's listed range. In
addition, several States and other commenters stated that the proposed
rule contained inadequate justification for a sweeping change in the
red knot's range from previous Service documents (e.g., 2006 to 2011
Candidate Notices of Review (CNORs)).
Our Response: We regret that this State is disappointed in our
communication efforts on the rufa red knot proposed listing. We
acknowledge the proposed range was greatly expanded from what was
described in the last CNOR update, but the proposed rule (78 FR 60024)
and this final rule contain our analysis of, and conclusions drawn
from, the best scientific and commercial data available. Substantial
new data have become available since 2011, the last year we were
required to update the knot's CNOR form. We also acknowledge that the
2011 CNOR form indicates the rufa red knot's range is limited to
coastal areas and did not include interior portions of the coastal
States or any inland States. The 2011 CNOR was based on the best data
available at the time. Our understanding of the species' biology and
occurrence records evolved rapidly based on results from geolocator
research followed by enhanced analysis of national and regional
databases. The proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp.
21, 23) explained the best available data and supported the expanded
geographic scope of analysis under the Act. The discussion of these
data has been updated and expanded in the Supplemental Document
(Species Nonbreeding Distributions; Migration--Midcontinent; Migration
and Wintering Habitat--Inland; Population Surveys and Estimates--Inland
Areas Spring and Fall). We will strive to improve our communication
with the States as we greatly value our conservation partnerships.
(27) Comment: Several States and other commenters stated that the
proposed rule is generally lacking in scientific evidence and is based
on speculative information. For example, (1) in the proposed rule, the
Service repeatedly made undocumented claims and speculated that a
variety of items ``may'' be a factor that could cause the demise of the
species; (2) in describing threats and risks to the red knot, the
proposed rule used terms such as high uncertainty, expected, likely,
may, could, possibly, and unknown but
[[Page 73715]]
possible; (3) although the best available science has been used to
generate predictions about some possible future impacts, best available
science has not been used to examine and explain the relevance of
potential threats (e.g., sea level rise, climate change) to recent red
knot population trends; (4) because of the potentially serious
ramifications of a Federal listing on Federal programs and permitting
processes, it is neither sufficient nor professional to base listing
decisions so heavily upon speculation; and (5) the principle of best
available science must be used to demonstrate causal relationships
between threats and population change. In a related comment, one
commenter stated that it is well-established that the Act does not
provide for the listing of species on the basis of speculative,
uncertain, or inconclusive information. A number of courts (i.e.,
Conner v. Burford, Trout Unlimited v. Lohn, Ctr. for Biological
Diversity v. Lubchenco, Bennett v. Spear, and Nat'l Res. Council v.
Daley) have determined that the threshold decision to list a species as
threatened or endangered is not to be based on speculation or a
misplaced intent to err on the side of species conservation. The
default position for all species is that they are not protected under
the Act.
Our Response: We disagree that our analysis is ``speculative.'' The
Service is required to make listing determinations based on the best
scientific and commercial data available. Sources of data include peer-
reviewed journal articles; field notes and other unpublished data; and
personal communications with species, habitat, and policy experts. We
analyze these sources of data and use our best professional judgment to
determine their credibility, in accordance with applicable data
standards (Interagency Policy on Information Standards Under the
Endangered Species Act (59 FR 34271); Information Quality Act (P.L.
106-554, section 515); Information Quality Guidelines and Peer Review
(USFWS 2012f, entire). All data have some level of uncertainty, but the
proposed rule properly identified, through citations, the data sources
and was transparent in qualifying areas and levels of uncertainty.
In making a listing determination, we evaluate the threats
affecting a species in the past, currently, and into the foreseeable
future. What constitutes the foreseeable future may be different for
each threat, given our confidence in the sources of the data and their
level of certainty regarding future conditions. The proposed rule and
Supplemental Document discuss what information we can reliably use to
reasonably foresee into the future. As discussed below, the Act and our
policies do not require a definitive knowledge of what will happen in
the future, only what we may reasonably predict is likely to occur.
Although there is some inherent uncertainty surrounding the threats we
evaluated for the red knot, this does not prevent us from making a
credible assessment of the likely direction and magnitude of those
impacts, even though it may not be possible to make such predictions
with precision. In addition, the proposed rule and its underlying data
were available for peer review and extensive public review and comment,
but the commenters did not provide additional substantive information
to refute our analysis or assumptions.
Under section 4 of the Act, a species shall be listed if it meets
the definition of threatened or endangered because of any (one or more)
of the five factors that are a basis for making a listing
determination, considering solely best available scientific and
commercial data. Although many species proposed for listing have
undergone, or are undergoing, a population decline, declining numbers
(rangewide or in portions of the range) are not necessary for listing
if a species is facing sufficient threats, now or in the foreseeable
future, to meet the definition of threatened or endangered.
Accordingly, not all threats contributing to a species' threatened or
endangered status must be tied to past or ongoing population declines;
threats for which the species is listed may not be affecting the
species at the time it is being evaluated for listing, but are likely
to do so in the future.
The commenter is incorrect in asserting that ``the default position
for all species is that they are not protected under the Act,'' or that
listings must be based on conclusive evidence. As stated above, the Act
and our policies do not require a definitive knowledge of what will
happen in the future, only what we may reasonably predict is likely to
occur when making a listing determination.
Further, our decisions are not based on speculation or misplaced
intentions. The Act requires the Service to base its listing
determination on the ``best scientific and commercial data available''
(16 U.S.C. 1533(b)(1)(A)). The ``best available science'' requirement
does not equate to the best possible science. Instead, this information
standard simply prohibits the Service from disregarding available
scientific evidence that is better than the evidence it initially
relied upon. The Service is required to rely upon the best available
science, even if that science is uncertain or even ``quite
inconclusive'' (i.e., Trout Unlimited v. Lohn, 645 F. Supp. 2d 929, 947
(D. Or. 2007) (``Trout Unlimited''); Southwest Center for Biological
Diversity v. Babbitt, 215 F.3d 58, 60, 342 U.S. App. D.C. 58 (D.C. Cir.
2000)). The case law cited by the commenters supports this position.
In distinguishing endangered from threatened, Congress defined
``threatened'' species as a species that is ``likely to become an
endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a
significant portion of its range'' (16 U.S.C. 1532(20)) (emphasis
added). Courts have acknowledged the word ``likely'' clearly means
something less than 100 percent certain (Trout Unlimited at 947).
Moreover, courts have found that an agency is entitled to particular
deference where it has drawn conclusions from scientific data (i.e.,
Marsh v. Or. Natural Res. Council, 490 U.S. 360, 375-77 (1989); Ethyl
Corp. v. EPA, 541 F.2d 1, 36 (D.C. Cir. 1976); Oceana v. Evans, 384 F.
Supp. 2d 203, 219 (D.D.C. 2005) (citing cases)).
(28) Comment: Several States and other commenters stated that the
rufa red knot geographic range should include only areas where the
species occurs regularly (annually or near annually), and should avoid
identifying jurisdictions (e.g., States) merely because they represent
continuous geographies between discrete regularly used stopover sites.
As presented in the proposed rule, the red knot range is inconsistent
with how the Service has defined the range of other listed migratory
birds. These commenters also noted that although eBird is a useful
resource, the Service should not have used it as the sole source for
determining the species' range in a listing process, and suggested a
more thorough and comprehensive review of occurrence records should be
conducted.
Our Response: In both the proposed and final rules, we have defined
the rufa red knot's range based on the best available data; however, we
recognize that scientific understanding of this species' range will
likely continue to improve over time. The Service may define a species'
range using State boundaries or other geographically appropriate scale.
How range is defined depends on characteristics of the species' biology
and how it is listed (i.e., as species/subspecies or a distinct
population segment (DPS)). A species' or subspecies' range is typically
described at the state or country scale. While the range of a DPS
listing can include entire States, it is more typically defined at a
more refined geographic scale because we must define where the discrete
entity occurs.
[[Page 73716]]
We defined the rufa red knot's range based on the data from
reliable published scientific literature, submitted manuscripts, and
species' experts; occurrence data; and analysis (e.g., estimated flight
paths based on known wintering and breeding grounds combined with
siting records). The regulations at 50 CFR 17.11(e) state, the
``historic range'' indicates the known general distribution of the
species or subspecies as reported in the scientific literature. The
present distribution may be greatly reduced from this historic range.
This column [in the table at 50 CFR 17.11(h)] does not imply any
limitations on the application of the prohibitions in the Act or
implementing rules. Such prohibitions apply to all individuals of the
species, wherever found [emphasis added]. Therefore, whether a specific
State or geographic area is included or excluded from the textual
description of the rufa red knot's range, the subspecies would be
protected under the Act wherever it may be found, for as long as it
remains federally listed. (See also Our Response 33 below.) Although a
species is listed wherever found, we strive to accurately describe the
range in the 50 CFR 17.11 table based on the best available data at the
time of listing. For earlier listed species such as the piping plover
and Kirtland's warbler, certain tools to help us understand the
migration routes of birds (e.g., satellite transmitters, geolocators,
eBird) were not available at the time.
See Our Response 82 for explanation of how we have interpreted and
utilized eBird data. We did not solely rely on eBird data to determine
the rufa red knot's range. In addition to eBird, we also relied heavily
on Newstead et al. 2013 (draft manuscript we had at the time) and
Morrison and Harrington 1992, and to a lesser degree on Skagen et al.
1999. These four sources constituted the best available data at the
time. For this final rule, we have also considered an analysis for the
Mississippi Flyway done by our Midwest Region Migratory Bird Program
(Russell 2014), the State reports provided by the Central Flyway
Council and other commenters, updated versions of Newstead et al.
(2013) and Carmona et al. (2013), and all other relevant new
information we have received since March 2013 when we completed
drafting of the proposed rule. These new sources further validate our
assumptions and conclusions outlined in the proposed rule. See Our
Response 35, below, and the Supplemental Document (Subspecies
Nonbreeding Distribution) regarding how we have delineated the
nonbreeding ranges of C.c. rufa versus C.c. roselaari based on the best
available data.
(29) Comment: Several commenters, including States, stated that
they were unaware of any reliably used stopover sites for the red knot
in the interior portion of the United States. These commenters
contended that bird occurrence data do not support the existence of
stopover sites (defined as habitats or locations that consistently
provide migrants with the opportunity to refuel and rest) within the
Central Flyway States, and that observed behavior and diet reinforce
the concept that red knots do not regularly use and do not require any
inland wetland locations as stopover sites within the interior of the
Central Flyway. Further, most interior records are for vagrant, single
birds, and interior sightings are so sparse that they are ecologically
insignificant. These State commenters specifically requested removal of
their particular States from the range, and requested that listing of
the rufa red knot not confer any requirements for any Federal or State
agency or private landowner. Conversely, one commenter rebutted that,
as is frequently the case for ``jump'' migrants, periodic weather
events or other circumstances occasionally result in birds being
grounded in locations or habitats that are only infrequently used along
the flyway. This commenter also stated that while this may be the case
for some of the interior areas, recent communications with biologists
working in North Dakota indicate that habitats in this region (e.g.,
Missouri River sandbars) are far more regularly used than eBird records
or other databases would indicate. Further, additional unpublished
geolocator tracks also show use of sites throughout the Missouri
Coteau, on both U.S. and Canadian sides of the border, as spring
migration stopovers. This commenter stated that the Service should make
a more complete assessment of the occurrence of the species in North
Dakota, and possibly other States, by contacting other biologists that
may have additional information that is not captured in electronic
databases.
Our Response: We also are unaware of any consistently used rufa red
knot stopover sites in the U.S. portion of the Central Flyway. However,
all three of our primary sources (Newstead et al. 2013, Skagen et al.
1999, and eBird.org 2014) suggest that habitats in the plains of
southern Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) are routinely relied
upon by migrating knots at least under certain conditions (e.g.,
favorable water levels). In addition, from the relatively small sample
size in Newstead et al. (2013, p. 56), one of six birds used North
Dakota for 14 days in spring. We do not yet know how aberrant or
representative this bird was, but these results indicate the
possibility that the documented Northern Plains stopover region may be
found to extend into the United States, as research on midcontinental
migrants continues. This possibility is supported by the new geolocator
information regarding additional knots on the U.S. side of the Missouri
Coteau (D. Newstead pers. comm. May 8, 2014), including three in
northern North Dakota, two in northern Montana, and one possibly
further south (e.g., Nebraska) (D. Newstead pers. comm. May 16, 2014).
Newstead et al. (2013, p. 56) found that the Northern Plains were used
as a northbound stopover by five of six birds in 2010 (including the
one in North Dakota), with the sixth bird using Hudson Bay. Hudson Bay
was used by three of three birds in 2011. Although the sample size
(e.g., recovered geolocators) is small, a large proportion of the
recovered geolocators show red knots using a midcontinental flyway.
Therefore, these results suggest that, in years when conditions favor
it, a large proportion of midcontinental migrants may use Northern
Plains stopovers in spring. In addition, birds using the Northern
Plains as a spring stopover stayed an average of 16.2 days (Newstead et
al. 2013, Table 3); this was not a short stop but actually similar to
the stopover duration in Delaware Bay.
In the proposed rule, we did not define ``stopover site.'' In the
Supplemental Document (Migration--Stopover Areas), we have added
clarification that places where migrant birds stop to rest, drink, and
eat are often described as either stopover or staging sites, with the
two terms frequently used interchangeably (Warnock 2010, p. 621). We
have adopted the definitions of Warnock (2010, p. 621) that all sites
where migrants rest and feed are stopover sites, while staging sites
are a subset of stopovers that provide abundant and predictable food
resources without which birds would incur significant fitness costs.
We agree that many of the inland red knot sightings to date
represent single birds. However, we understand the term ``vagrant'' to
mean a bird that has strayed or been blown far from its usual range or
migratory route; synonymous with ``accidental.'' According to Russell
(2014, p. 1), ``accidental'' implies an extraordinary record, out of
the normal pattern, and unlikely to occur again. Based on this
understanding of the term,
[[Page 73717]]
we disagree with characterizing rufa red knots in the Central Flyway as
vagrant, based on geolocator results showing that the midcontinent does
constitute the most prevalent migratory route for at least some birds
that winter in Texas (D. Newstead pers. comm. May 8, 2014; Newstead et
al. 2013, entire). Based on these geolocator data, we conclude that a
substantial proportion of Texas-wintering knots pass over the Central
Flyway twice annually during migration. Other than the Northern Plains
of southern Saskatchewan (and potentially extending into the northern
U.S. plains), we are not currently aware of any other stopover sites in
the Central Flyway that are routinely or intermittently relied upon by
a substantial number of birds.
Further, there are clusters of sightings records in both the
midcontinent and further east through the Mississippi Valley and along
the Great Lakes. These cluster areas warrant further study to more
fully evaluate their usage as red knot stopovers. (See Supplemental
Document section Migration--Midcontinent--Stopovers.) As recommended by
one commenter, we anticipate a more complete assessment of unpublished
or anecdotal sightings data in the course of recovery planning. The
existence of such additional sightings data, and the geographic
clustering of the eBird data along water bodies, suggest that some
inland areas may, upon further study, be found to routinely or
intermittently support roosting and feeding red knots during migration.
(30) Comment: Several States and other commenters noted Newstead et
al.'s (2013) findings that more than 10,000 red knots from the Atlantic
coast have been uniquely marked. These commenters highlighted the
authors' conclusion that ``The paucity of resightings in Texas suggests
that most of these knots probably do not share the same wintering or
stopover sites as those associated with the West Atlantic flyway.''
Our Response: We agree that available data do not show any use of a
midcontinental (inland Texas through North Dakota) flyway by knots
known to winter or stopover along the U.S. Atlantic coast. However,
Newstead et al. 2013 go on to say, ``The paucity of resightings in
Texas suggests that most of these knots probably do not share the same
wintering or stopover sites as those associated with the West Atlantic
flyway, though the paucity may be the result of limited effort and/or
reporting'' [emphasis added]. Indeed, we have updated the Supplemental
Document with new geolocator data confirming earlier indications (from
resightings) that at least some Texas-wintering knots do mix with
Atlantic coast birds during migration, both in Canada (Migration--
Midcontinent--Spring) and the United States (Migration--Midcontinent--
Flyway Fidelity).
(31) Comment: Several States and other commenters stated that
records of this species' occurrence in the midcontinent suggest red
knots use a ``jump'' migration strategy, whereby birds fly over the
Southern and Central Great Plains and stopover at sites in the Northern
Great Plains, principally in Southern Canada. Further, both spring and
fall migrations involve a single 2- or 3-day flight between the Gulf
coast and Canada.
Our Response: We agree that this picture of midcontinent migration
(long ``jumps'' mainly to Southern Canada) is consistent with best
available data. However, that body of available data (mainly Newstead
et al. 2013, Skagen et al. 1999, and eBird.org 2014) is not extensive.
Newstead et al. (2013) did find 2- or 3-day migration flights between
Texas and the northern stopovers, based on a sample size of eight
geolocators, some of which had been carried by the same birds for 2
full years. In addition to Newstead's research, our review of reliable
national and regional occurrence data (Central Flyway Council 2013;
eBird 2012; A. Simnor pers. comm. October 15, 2012) found multiple rufa
red knot sighting records in every interior State. See Our Response 29
for discussion of potential stopover areas in the interior United
States.
(32) Comment: Several States and other commenters stated that a
separate population of rufa red knots exists in the midcontinent of the
United States and this population may constitute a DPS; therefore, a
DPS analysis should be conducted. Further, these commenters stated that
there is no compelling evidence that the midcontinental population
meets the definition of threatened and none of the threats affecting
the Atlantic coast population are applicable to the midcontinental
population.
Our Response: Under the Act, we may list a species, subspecies, or
a DPS of a vertebrate species. The Act's definition of ``species''
includes ``any subspecies of fish or wildlife or plants, and any
distinct population segment of any species of vertebrate fish or
wildlife which interbreed when mature.'' We have no evidence that the
rufa red knot is composed of separate populations that may warrant
protection of the Act at less than the subspecies level. Based on the
best scientific and commercial data available, we determined the rufa
subspecies of the red knot to warrant listing as threatened throughout
its entire range.
(33) Comment: Several States and other commenters stated that
giving infrequently or unused areas the same standing as regularly used
and critically important sites ultimately hinders conservation efforts
and is counterproductive. Listing in the Central Flyway States will
result in expenditure of resources and create unnecessary bureaucracy
(e.g., to conduct consultations) in areas with little to no occupancy,
potentially diverting resources away from coastal habitats where they
would have substantially greater conservation benefit. Further, listing
in the Central Flyway States has no conceivable conservation benefit to
red knots or to noncoastal wetland habitats, which already derive
protection from other listed species like the piping plover, whooping
crane, and interior least tern.
Our Response: We disagree. The Service must make its determination
on whether a species, subspecies, or DPS meets the definition of
threatened or endangered based solely on the best available scientific
and commercial data. This determination is based only on an analysis of
the population and threats affecting the species as set forth under
sections 4(a) and 4(b) of the Act. The extent to which a potential
listing will or will not advance the conservation of any particular
ecosystem (e.g., noncoastal wetlands) is not a factor we may consider
when determining whether a species meets the definition of threatened
or endangered, nor may we consider economic information, including
workload implications. As discussed above in Our Response 28, the
provisions of the Act apply to all individuals of a listed species
wherever found (emphasis added). Upon listing, therefore, the rufa red
knot is protected by the Act wherever it occurs, even as scientific
understanding of its range will likely continue to improve over time.
That said, the Service has the appropriate tools under sections 7 and
10 of the Act to work with our State, Federal, and private partners to
appropriately evaluate the likelihood of effects to red knots stemming
from proposed activities. Such evaluations will be based on the
species' level of exposure to the proposed activity, including the
frequency and consistency of the species' occurrence in the affected
area, and the type of activity, including its timing and duration.
These evaluations may be done at different geographic scales.
[[Page 73718]]
During the recovery planning process we will focus on those
stopover sites, both coastal and inland, that support the largest
concentrations of birds, based on best available data. Inland habitats
could be an important feature for certain flyways at certain times
(e.g., during particular weather conditions). Based on best available
information, the Texas-wintering birds using the Central Flyway are
important to the red knot's overall conservation because these birds
contribute to the subspecies' resiliency and geographic representation.
Protecting these birds and their habitats under the Act does have
conservation benefit to the rufa red knot.
(34) Comment: One State commented that, given the longitudinal
relationship between the Atlantic coast of the United States and the
Pacific coast of South America, as well as the documented occurrence of
marked Calidris canutus rufa in Panama and the central coast of Chile
(Gonz[aacute]lez et al. 2006), it is conceivable that some C.c. rufa
winter in sympatry (e.g., occur in the same area) with C.c. roselaari
along the Pacific coasts of Peru and Chile. Further, the subspecific
affiliation of the knots that winter along the Pacific coast from
southern Mexico through Chile is currently uncertain (78 FR 60024, p.
60026).
Our Response: We agree. We have updated the Supplemental Document
(Subspecies Nonbreeding Distributions) with considerable new
information and new conclusions regarding the nonbreeding distributions
of the rufa and roselaari subspecies, including areas of likely or
potential overlap.
(35) Comment: Several States and other commenters noted that the
proposed rule includes inland States with low Calidris canutus
occurrence (e.g., Nebraska) while excluding other inland States with
more numerous C. canutus occurrence records (e.g., Utah). Despite past
uncertainty, C.c. roselaari is now believed to be restricted to the
Pacific coast based on current information.
Our Response: Numerical prevalence of Calidris canutus does not
shed light on which subspecies (C.c. roselarri or C.c. rufa)
predominate in any particular area. There is considerable uncertainty
regarding the subspecific identity of C. canutus in the western
interior United States, and it is possible that the two subspecies both
occur in this area during migration. This uncertainty was reflected in
questions 5 and 10 under ``Information Requested'' in the proposed rule
(78 FR 60025). Despite a number of population-wide morphological
differences (USFWS 2011a, p. 305), the rufa and roselaari subspecies
cannot be distinguished in the field because physical variability among
individuals results in overlaps in many physical parameters (e.g., wing
and bill length) between the two subspecies (USFWS 2011a, p. 205;
Harrington 2001, pp. 4-5; Harrington et al. 1988, p. 441). Because
these two subspecies cannot be distinguished in the field, other
methods (e.g., mark-resighting efforts, stable isotope analysis,
genetics) are needed to delineate their distributions (D. Newstead
pers. comm. September 14, 2012).
As discussed under Our Response 28 and detailed in the Supplemental
Document (Subspecies Nonbreeding Distributions--Western Interior United
States), we defined the rufa red knot's Western U.S. range based on
best available data from reliable published scientific literature,
submitted manuscripts, and species' experts; occurrence data; and
analysis (e.g., estimated flight paths based on known wintering and
breeding grounds combined with siting records). While it is possible
that rufa red knots range nearly all the way to the Pacific coast
during migration, we do not have any evidence to date (e.g., genetics,
mark-resightings, geolocator data, or stable isotope data) of rufa west
of the Great Plains. We acknowledge considerable uncertainty around the
subspecies composition in the Western States but conclude, based on
best available data, that the rufa range likely extends to the western
limit of the Great Plains (as mapped by the Level I ecoregions (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) 2013a)). See also Our Response
82 below.
(36) Comment: One State and several other commenters stated that,
prior to a listing determination, more information is needed regarding
the status and characteristics of red knot populations (e.g.,
population status in Texas, connectivity of migratory flyways). In
addition, gathering more scientific research on the red knot population
in Texas will improve viability assessments of the entire subspecies
throughout its range.
Our Response: The proposed rule presented best available data
regarding red knot population size, diet, habitat use, and threats in
Texas, as well as the prevalence and migration patterns of Calidris
canutus rufa versus C.c. roselaari in Texas (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance pp. 5-7, 9, 14-16, 21-24, 27, 34-35, 42; Factor D pp. 10-11;
78 FR 60024, pp. 60030, 60033, 60035, 60039-60042, 60044-60045, 60052,
60056, 60059, 60063, 60078, 60081, 60085-60086, 60089, 60092). Section
4 of the Act directs that listing determinations be made on the basis
of the best scientific and commercial data available. We evaluated
approximately 1,400 references during the preparation of the proposed
rule, and communicated with numerous species and threats experts, to
comply with this data standard required by the Act. We solicited peer
review on the proposed rule. Peer review comments are reflected in the
Supplemental Document, which has also been updated with new data
regarding Texas, the nonbreeding distribution of rufa red knots, and
connectivity of the flyways (Subspecies Nonbreeding Distributions;
Migration; Migration and Wintering Habitat) that has subsequently
become available through the public comment period and clarification
from experts. Although a more complete picture of red knot ecology in
Texas will be helpful for recovery planning, research to generate these
new data is not yet available. As discussed in Our Response 27 above,
the ``best available science'' requirement does not equate to the best
possible science. We acknowledge certain data gaps (78 FR 60024, pp.
60024-60025) and uncertainties, some of which are inherent in all
natural systems and all evaluations of future conditions; however, we
conclude that the best available data are sufficient to document
several population-level threats to the red knot, as well as its
reduced population size relative to the early 1980s, and thus conclude
that the red knot meets the definition of a threatened species.
(37) Comment: One State commented that the proposed rule did not
provide comprehensive population numbers for either the historical or
current population size for this subspecies or estimates that encompass
the entire wintering range, the entire nesting range, or all of the
potential migration stopover habitats along the U.S. Atlantic coast.
This commenter believes the proposal gave undue importance to
population trends at only two locations, Delaware Bay and Tierra del
Fuego, and that maximum percent declines at these two sites are not
sufficient for an evaluation of the severity of the apparent
[rangewide] population decline. Further, because the red knot is highly
mobile and individual birds and flocks appear to be capable of using
different locations as stopover points from year to year, a more
rigorous approach than subsampling should be used to assess population
changes. Another commenter believes 40 years of data are not enough to
show a trend in red knot populations and the Service
[[Page 73719]]
should look at hundreds of years of data.
Our Response: As discussed in the Supplemental Document (Population
Surveys and Estimates), we conclude that we do not have sufficient
reliable data on which to base a precise rangewide population estimate.
Thus, we have instead considered the best available data, which
consists of survey data for specific regions. In the proposed rule, we
limited our conclusions to trends within each regional data set (Rufa
Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 53-54), though we did note a
temporal correlation between declines at Tierra del Fuego and Delaware
Bay (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 48). Although we lack
sufficiently robust data to conclude if other wintering and stopover
areas also declined, we conclude it is likely that declines at Tierra
del Fuego and Delaware Bay drove an overall population decline (i.e.,
lower total numbers), because these two sites are believed to have
supported a large majority of rangewide knots (see Our Response 38). We
note that our calculation of those regional declines (75 percent at
Tierra del Fuego and 70 percent at Delaware Bay) are based on averages
of early and late time periods, calculated to smooth out inherent
variability in the data. In contrast, the maximum declines (i.e.,
comparing only the single lowest count with the single highest count)
were both recorded in 2011 and show an 81 percent decline at Tierra del
Fuego and an 87 percent decline at Delaware Bay. Despite the above-
mentioned limitations in producing a rangewide population estimate, we
do note that several analyses conducted by others all concluded red
knot numbers declined, probably sharply, in recent decades. While we
did not rely on these other analyses, we do note that they are
independently consistent with the conclusions we draw from the
available (regional) data sets.
A more rigorous survey regime to estimate rangewide population
changes over time may become available in the future. For example,
mathematical population size estimates based on marked birds were begun
in 2011 in Delaware Bay (J. Lyons pers. comm. September 3, 2013) and
Georgia (GDNR 2013). This new method does not yet allow for trend
analysis because only a few data points are available, and does not yet
have the geographic coverage to permit a rangewide population estimate.
However, the Act requires that we make listing determinations based on
the best available data. The proposed rule identifies and evaluates the
best available population information, which is associated with high
confidence in those regions with long time series and consistent survey
methods (e.g., Delaware Bay, Virginia, Tierra del Fuego).
We disagree that these best available data cover an insufficient
time period for trend analysis. Even with inherent annual variability,
we conclude the available data are sufficient to document a sharp and
prolonged period of decline in red knot counts in Delaware Bay and
Tierra del Fuego in the 2000s. Further, we have gathered best available
historical data dating back to the mid-1800s, as presented in the
proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance) and the
Supplemental Document (Historical Distribution and Abundance, pp. 33-
36). Although these historical data do not permit a quantitative
analysis, they do convey a consistent qualitative account of historical
declines and followed by, at least, a partial recovery.
(38) Comment: One State questioned the validity of applying the
observed decline in Delaware Bay to the entire population since,
despite its apparent importance, the bay represents only a small
portion of the Atlantic coast and the potential stopover habitat
available to migrating red knots.
Our Response: While, geographically, Delaware Bay represents only a
small proportion of the total U.S. Atlantic coast, we conclude the bay
supports a significant proportion of the total rufa red knot population
during spring migration (Brown et al. 2001, p. 10), as discussed in the
proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 29). Although no
current, reliable, rangewide population estimate is available, reliable
regional population data are available (see Our Response 77; Rufa Red
Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 38-52; and Population Surveys and
Estimates in the Supplemental Document). We have analyzed the most
recent estimates of red knot numbers from each wintering region,
Delaware Bay peak counts from the past 10 years, and Delaware Bay total
passage population estimates from the past 3 years. Based on this
analysis, we conclude that Delaware Bay continues to support the
majority of red knots during spring.
That said, we agree that extrapolation of population declines in
Delaware Bay to the rest of the red knot population should be
conservative and undertaken only when supported by corroborating data.
In the proposed rule, we presented data for specific regions (Rufa Red
Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 38-52) and limited our conclusions to
trends within each regional data set (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance, pp. 53-54). However, we also stated, ``the pattern and
timing of these declines in Delaware Bay relative to Tierra del Fuego
and other stopovers is suggestive of a decrease in the overall
population'' (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 48). We agree
that this statement was imprecise and have revised the Supplemental
Document (Population Surveys and Estimates--Spring Stopover Areas--
Delaware Bay) to clarify our conclusions drawn from best available
data. We have also revised the Supplemental Document (Summary--
Population Surveys and Estimates) to clarify, ``Although we lack
sufficiently robust data to conclude if other wintering and stopover
areas also declined, we conclude it is likely that declines at Tierra
del Fuego and Delaware Bay drove an overall population decline (i.e.,
lower total numbers), because these two sites supported a large
majority of rangewide knots during the baseline 1980s period.''
(39) Comment: One State commented that the annual variation in the
Delaware Bay peak counts suggests that knots are capable of altering
their stopover behavior between years. It is unlikely that the actual
population fluctuates at the high magnitude reflected in the Delaware
Bay peak counts; therefore, year-to-year changes are probably related
to variations in passage rates for birds moving through the region and
variations in the use of multiple stopover sites.
Our Response: We agree that the Delaware Bay peak counts are highly
variable, but conclude that much of the short-term (year-to-year)
variation can be attributed to the fact that peak counts are only a
proxy measure for the total passage population. Year-to-year
differences in the month-long patterns of arrival and departure would
affect the percentage of total passage population that is captured by
each year's peak count (e.g., some years more birds may depart early
and be missed by the late-May peak count). It is also possible that the
survey date has missed the true peak number of birds in some years,
particularly after 2008 when weekly, season-long survey efforts were
scaled back to focus only on the end of May. That said, we also agree
that red knots may switch between mid-Atlantic stopovers between, and
even within, years, and that this flexibility may explain part of the
variability in the data from both Delaware Bay and Virginia
(Supplemental Document tables 8 and 11). We noted this flexibility in
spring stopovers in the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance, p.
[[Page 73720]]
20). Despite the high variability, we attach high confidence to the
long-term trend evident in the Delaware Bay peak count data, based on
the consistent methods and observers, particularly during the core
years of 1986 to 2008.
(40) Comment: One State and several other commenters stated that
recent population estimates calculated from resightings of banded knots
using capture-recapture statistical methods should not be conflated
with long-term data sets of maximum 1-day (peak) counts.
Our Response: The proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance, pp. 47-51) did not conflate population estimates derived
from these two different methods. As we explain in the Supplemental
Document (Population Surveys and Estimates--Spring Stopover Areas),
because birds pass in and out of a stopover area, the peak count (the
highest number of birds seen on a single day) for a particular year is
lower than the total passage population (i.e., the total number of
birds that stopped at that site over the course of that migration
season). For this reason, we have not compared data sets estimating
total passage population (from capture-recapture statistical methods)
with those of peak counts (maximum 1-day counts). We present these data
sets separately in tables 9 to 13 of the Supplemental Document, with
data updates where available.
(41) Comment: One State concluded that peak red knot numbers in
Delaware Bay have been stable to increasing since 2002, while another
commenter concluded that red knot numbers in Delaware Bay continue to
decline.
Our Response: We disagree with both of these conclusions. We find
that peak counts from 2002 through 2008 continued to show a slight
downward trend. Peak counts from 2009 through 2014 appear to have been
stable to slightly increasing, despite lower confidence in these recent
counts due to multiple shifts in methodology and surveyors. Average
peak counts for the last decade (2005 to 2014) remain about 70 percent
lower than during the baseline period of 1981 to 1983. See Supplemental
Document, Population Surveys and Estimates--Spring Stopover Areas--
Delaware Bay.
(42) Comment: One State and several other commenters noted that the
ARM model established a threshold of red knot abundance (45,000 or half
of the historical peak counts) which, when reached, will trigger female
crab harvest. As this threshold was derived from peak counts, it must
be adjusted upward to account for differences in methods before it can
be judged against new estimates of total stopover population derived
from mark-resighting data. One State also commented that the mark-
resighting method is of limited value in trend assessment because
population estimates cannot be made retrospectively, but did
acknowledge that it is probably the most robust method of estimating
actual stopover population numbers and, therefore, will be useful in
developing future trend information.
Our Response: We agree that the threshold must be revised and note
that this adjustment has already been made. This threshold, used in the
ASMFC's management of the HSC fishery under the ARM, has now been
adjusted upward to account for differences in methodology. In September
2013, the ASMFC's Delaware Bay Ecosystem Technical Committee adopted a
ratio of 1.82, and adjusted the threshold from 45,000 to 81,900 red
knots. This ratio may be refined when the ARM model is re-evaluated in
the future (ASMFC 2013e, p. 1). We agree that this is a robust method
of estimating stopover populations, but also agree that the mark-
resighting method cannot yet be used for trend analysis because too few
data points are available to date. No accurate estimates of the total
stopover population using the methods of J. Lyons (pers. comm.
September 3, 2013) can be calculated prior to 2011, when the required
data began to be collected. However, estimates prior to 2011 are not
needed to implement the ARM model as decisions on HSC harvest are based
upon the current populations of HSCs and red knots. For red knot
population trend analysis in Delaware Bay, we have relied on the peak
counts (see Our Responses 37 and 39.)
(43) Comment: One State said that it had difficulty evaluating the
geographic adequacy of the winter surveys in Tierra del Fuego and the
southern coastline of Argentina, because these surveys may or may not
cover a sufficiently large portion of the wintering range to develop a
comprehensive population estimate. This State questioned if it is
possible that red knots winter outside of the surveyed area further
north along the coast lines of Argentina and Chile, or on the Falkland
Islands.
Our Response: Much of what we know about the distribution of
wintering red knots along the coasts of South America comes from
Morrison and Ross (1989), who reported the results of aerial surveys
conducted from 1982 to 1986. This survey effort covered nearly the
entire Atlantic, Pacific, and northern coasts of South America
(Morrison and Ross 1989, Vol. 1, p. 22). During these extensive
surveys, Calidris canutus was observed only in Tierra del Fuego and the
Patagonian coast of Argentina, the north coast of Brazil, and western
Venezuela (Morrison and Ross 1989 Vol. 1, pp. 37, 40-41). Although
Morrison and Ross (1989) did not observe C. canutus along the Pacific
coast of South America, they recorded substantial numbers of
unidentified medium-sized shorebirds in several locations, including
some areas with reports of C. canutus from other sources (eBird.org
2014; Carmona et al. 2013, pp. 175, 180; Ruiz-Guerra 2011, p. 194;
Morrison and Ross 1989 Vol. 1, p. 40; Hughes 1979, pp. 51-52). In the
proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 38-42), we
presented the data of Morrison and Ross (1989) as well as all available
results of more recent survey efforts for the known and possible range
of C.c. rufa, which includes the east and north coasts of South
America. These data have been updated in the Supplemental Document
(Population Surveys and Estimates). Based on new information indicating
that at least some of the C. canutus on the central Pacific coast of
Chile are also C.c. rufa, we have also added best available abundance
data for the west coast of South America (Population Surveys and
Estimates--Central America and Pacific South America). We are unaware
of any published or unpublished C. canutus reports from the Falkland
Islands, there are no reports of these species for that area in eBird
(eBird.org 2014), and no other datasets for the Falkland Islands were
provided during the comment period. The lack of data may be explained
by an apparent lack of survey efforts.
(44) Comment: One State commented that, based upon its review of
the threats analysis published in the listing proposal, it does not
find compelling evidence that the rufa subspecies of the red knot
warrants listing as a federally threatened species throughout the
eastern half of the United States. Other commenters stated that listing
of the rufa red knot is not warranted based on a lack of compelling
evidence in the proposed rule, and that the threatened determination
relies on speculative future conditions. An additional commenter stated
that a reasonable determination could also be made that adequate
conservation measures already exist to reasonably protect red knot
populations and that forecasting cumulative worst case scenarios to
determine species risk does not meet the test of 50 CFR 424.4(a)(1) for
adding a new species to the list of threatened and endangered species.
Conversely, other commenters stated that we should list
[[Page 73721]]
the red knot as endangered or use our authorities for emergency
listing, while another commenter mentioned that the previous change in
the rufa red knot's listing priority number was no guarantee that it
would be listed.
Our Response: See Our Responses 27, 36, and 71 regarding how we
satisfied the Act's information standard. The proposed rule and its
underlying data were available for extensive public and peer review and
comment. The commenters did not provide additional substantive
information to refute our analysis or assumptions. We disagree that
this listing determination relies on cumulative-worst case scenarios,
and instead find that the red knot meets the definition of a threatened
species based on several population-level threats. Particularly
considering the cumulative effects of ongoing and emerging threats, and
considering that several populations of red knots have already
undergone considerable declines and remain at low levels, we conclude
that the best available data constitute compelling scientific evidence
that the red knot meets the definition of a threatened species.
As noted in the proposed rule (Previous Federal Actions, p. 2), the
listing priority number was changed (from 6 to 3) in 2008. The
commenter is correct that candidate species of any listing priority
number are not guaranteed to be listed--new information may become
available that causes us to change our conclusion that listing is
warranted. However, this is not the case for the red knot. As for the
need to emergency list, this request is moot because the red knot will
become listed as threatened upon the effective date of this rule. As
noted in the proposed rule (Previous Federal Actions, pp. 1-2), we
previously determined that emergency listing was not warranted, and we
had no new information to indicate emergency listing was warranted at
the time of, or subsequent to, the proposed rule.
We have carefully reviewed all new information since the proposed
rule, and continue to find that the red knot meets the definition of a
threatened species under the Act. We do not find that the red knot
warrants listing as endangered based largely on the fact that red knot
populations in Tierra del Fuego and Delaware Bay, although still at
historically low levels, appear to have stabilized since about 2009,
suggesting that the red knot is not currently at risk of extinction,
but is likely to become so in the foreseeable future.
(45) Comment: One State and an additional commenter expressed
concerns that threats in other habitats outside of Delaware Bay are
having a disproportionate effect on the red knot because the Delaware
Bay remains in a ``depauperate state,'' at least as it pertains to
shorebirds (i.e., HSC population levels are too low to provide the
``super-abundance of eggs''). Because of this egg insufficiency,
threats in other habitats used during the red knot's annual cycle will
have a proportionately greater effect on red knot population viability.
Thus, addressing the HSC egg food supply in the bay must remain at the
forefront of red knot recovery efforts.
Our Response: We disagree that the bay is currently ``depauperate''
for shorebirds, but agree that the HSC egg supply should remain a focus
of red knot recovery work. As noted in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024,
p. 60063), most data suggest that the volume of HSC eggs is currently
sufficient to support the Delaware Bay's stopover population of red
knots at its present size. This conclusion seems to be holding, as red
knot weight gain was good during spring 2014, for a third consecutive
year (A. Dey pers. comm. July 23, 2014). However, it is not yet known
if the egg resource will continue to adequately support red knot
population growth over the next decade. Thus, we agree that sustained
focus on protecting the red knot's food supply is vital to the recovery
of the red knot, and will be addressed during the recovery planning
process. Further, we intend to continue our active role in the ASMFC's
management of the HSC fishery. Under the ARM we do not anticipate the
bait harvest will slow red knot population growth (see Our Response 48)
(Smith et al. 2013, p. 8).
We also agree that a number of other threats are likely
contributing to habitat loss, anthropogenic mortality, or both, and
thus contribute to the red knot's threatened status, particularly
considering the cumulative effects of these threats, and that
populations of this species have already undergone considerable
declines in key areas.
(46) Comment: One State and several other commenters stated that
the Delaware Bay HSC population has not recovered and concluded that
management of this fishery to date has not accomplished its objectives
and has proven inadequate to reverse declines. Several commenters noted
that no class of HSC (by sex or age) has shown any recovery as measured
by the Virginia Tech Horseshoe Crab Trawl Survey or the Delaware Bay
16-foot Trawl Survey. Further, positive trends in female HSC
populations are absent, even after 7 years of male-only harvest, which
is consistent with significant unaccounted losses of female crabs, for
example, from mortality caused by biomedical harvest, poaching, and
bycatch. In addition, one State commented that the 2013 defunding of
the Virginia Tech Trawl Survey adds to uncertainty that the data
sources relied upon in the ARM models will be consistently available.
In contrast, one commenter stated that, while the benthic trawl survey
is the best survey to support the ARM, a sound strategy has been
developed to use the NEAMAP data to support the 2014 modeling efforts
for the 2015 fishery, and the ASMFC Horseshoe Crab Management Board and
ARM Working Group anticipate the continued use of the ARM framework for
management.
Our Response: Numerous data sets are available regarding the
Delaware Bay HSC population. We rely on ASMFC's periodic stock
assessments to appropriately weigh and statistically analyze these data
sets to draw conclusions regarding HSC population trends, as discussed
in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60066). The Supplemental Document
(Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A,
Part 2) has been updated to include the results of the 2013 stock
assessment update. The 2013 stock assessment update concluded that, in
the Delaware Bay Region, there is evidence of increases in certain age
or sex classes, but overall population trends have been largely stable
(neither increasing nor decreasing) since the previous stock assessment
in 2009 (ASMFC 2013b, p. 22). These 2013 stock assessment findings are
consistent with our conclusions in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60066) that HSC population declines were observed during the 1990s,
increases (though not a full return to 1980s levels) and stabilization
occurred in the early 2000s, and various data sets have differed with
no consistent trends since 2005. We note that the ARM framework does
not define a ``recovery'' population level for Delaware Bay HSCs, but
instead seeks to set the crab harvest at a level that does not slow the
achievement of an agreed-upon red knot population target.
We disagree that ASMFC's regulatory approach has been inadequate.
In addition to restricting harvests through the Fisheries Management
Plan (including the most recent iteration, the ARM), the ASMFC has
taken several proactive steps including establishment of a Technical
Committee to focus on shorebirds, requesting the establishment of an
HSC reserve in Federal waters, supporting work on alternative baits,
and reducing demand by promoting bait-saving devices. These efforts
[[Page 73722]]
reduced reported landings (ASMFC 2009a, p. 1) from 1998 to 2011 by more
than 75 percent (78 FR 60024, p. 60064). We believe it is premature to
state that the ASMFC's regulatory approach has not accomplished its
objectives. Rather, we anticipate that this regulatory approach,
currently reflected in the ARM framework, will allow for HSC and red
knot population growth to meet ASMFC objectives. However, even highly
successful harvest management under the ARM will only meet its
objectives to the extent that the HSC population remains limited by
harvest. For example, food resources, habitat conditions, and other
conditions that affect growth, survival, and carrying capacity of HSCs
in the Delaware Bay Region may have changed over time and cannot be
affected by management of the fishery.
Regarding when to expect female HSCs to show an increase based upon
existing monitoring programs, several areas need to be considered
including the ability of the monitoring programs to detect change in
the populations, our understanding of how the population may respond,
and other factors such as food availability for HSCs, as well as bait
and biomedical mortality. Horseshoe crabs take 9 to 12 years to reach
breeding age, and modeling suggests that it will likely take longer
than one generation for adult abundance to increase. See Our Response
49 below regarding possible sources of HSC mortality not explicitly
accounted for in the ARM models.
We agree that the Virginia Tech survey is the best benthic trawl
survey to support the ARM. In the absence of the Virginia Tech survey,
we support the ongoing efforts of the ASMFC to adapt the NEAMAP data
for use in the models. However, efforts to date have not identified a
method by which the NEAMAP data can allow for the functioning of the
ARM models (ASMFC 2014b). Stable funding sources for the other baywide
monitoring programs are also a concern. Insufficient monitoring has
already impacted the ability of the ASMFC to implement the ARM as
intended (ASMFC 2014b; ASMFC 2012c, p. 13). If the ARM cannot be
implemented in any given year, the ASMFC would choose between two
options based on which it determines to be more appropriate--either use
the previous year's harvest levels (as previously set by the ARM), or
revert to an earlier management regime (ASMFC 2012e, p. 6). Although
the HSC fishery would continue to be managed under either of these
options, the explicit link to red knot populations would be lost.
Absent the necessary HSC monitoring data to use the ARM models for the
2015 season, ASMFC (2014b) has opted to use the 2014 harvest levels
which we considered at the time to adequately ensure the red knot's
food supply. We have revised the Supplemental Document (Factor E--
Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Adaptive Resource
Management) to reflect this new uncertainty about the future of the
ARM.
(47) Comment: One State commented that recent efforts to develop an
artificial bait for the conch and eel fisheries could reduce demand for
HSCs as bait and reduce the HSC harvest, thereby benefitting HSC (and
red knot) rebuilding. However, to realize a significant benefit to the
HSC population, the use of artificial bait would need to reduce
harvest/demand for HSCs to a level below quota levels.
Our Response: We agree that HSC alternatives offer the possibility
of substantial conservation benefits to the red knot. In the proposed
rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60067), we noted efforts to develop an artificial
bait to replace HSCs, as well as work toward alternatives to the
biomedical HSC product Limulus Amebocyte Lysate. We have updated the
Supplemented Document (Factor E--Reduce Food Resources--Horseshoe Crab
Harvest--Link A, Park 2) with new information on artificial bait from
the University of Delaware (Wakefield 2013). We support these efforts,
which would reduce or eliminate the demand for harvesting HSCs.
However, until bait or lysate alternatives are widely adopted, we
anticipate that management of HSC harvests under the ARM will continue
to adequately abate the food supply threat to red knots from HSC
harvest in the Delaware Bay. (However, see Our Response 46 regarding
new uncertainty about the future of the ARM.)
(48) Comment: One State and several other commenters expressed
concern that, under the ARM, Delaware Bay HSC populations are not
expected to recover for 60 years. One State indicated that the carrying
capacity of Delaware Bay for female crabs is estimated at 14 million
individuals while the current female population estimate is 4.5
million, and growth to carrying capacity would take more than 100 years
according to simulations by Smith et al. (2013). Another commenter
stated that the number of crabs must return to the levels of the early
1990s to support the recovery of the red knot. Several of these
commenters believed that the ARM models value harvest (give it
``utility'') above a speedy recovery of HSCs. Another commenter stated
that it remains to be seen if the HSC population will respond to recent
harvest quotas set by the ASMFC and that the food supply for red knots
in Delaware Bay remains uncertain for at least the near term.
Conversely, one commenter stated that assertions that the HSC
population must increase by an order of magnitude to have a beneficial
impact on survival of the red knot population are not supported by
defensible data.
Our Response: We disagree with these conclusions regarding HSC
population growth rates and target population levels. In a recent
study, Smith et al. (2013, entire) ran computer simulations to test how
uncertainty affects the management of the Delaware Bay HSC population
under the ARM. These authors presented charts with simulated population
trajectories of both HSCs and red knots. However, these simulations
were intended to illustrate the role of uncertainty in the ARM
framework, not to predict recovery times. Because it is adaptive in
nature (i.e., each year's harvest limits are based on the previous
year's crab and knot population estimates), the ARM is not designed to
answer the question of how long it will take to achieve any particular
HSC or red knot population size in Delaware Bay. The findings of Smith
et al. (2013) have been incorporated into the Supplemental Document
(Factor E--Reduce Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Adaptive
Resource Management).
As explained above in Our Response 46, the ARM framework does not
define a ``recovery'' population level for Delaware Bay HSCs. We do not
assert that any particular HSC population level is necessary to have a
beneficial impact on the red knot stopover population in Delaware Bay.
Further, we do not have any information to indicate that the HSC
population must reach carrying capacity--or must return to early 1990s
levels, or increase by an order of magnitude--to support the full
recovery of the Delaware Bay's red knot stopover population. Instead,
we rely on the adaptive, scientific modeling of the ARM framework to
determine the appropriate HSC harvest level necessary to maximize red
knot population growth.
We disagree that the ARM framework values harvest over maximum HSC
population growth. Under the ARM framework, utility is given to harvest
(i.e., harvest is ``valued,'' and, therefore, allowed) only when knot
and crab populations are above a threshold. Although the simulations by
Smith et al. (2013, p. 8) are not intended to predict actual timeframes
for population
[[Page 73723]]
growth, they did show that the bait harvest levels allowed by the ARM
did not slow red knot population growth relative to a complete
moratorium (see Our Response 121). The simulations by Smith et al.
(2013) suggest these species will take a long time to rebuild (although
we cannot predict how long) due to their inherent biology (long time to
maturity and low survival in early life stages), not due to the ARM
utility values.
We agree that food supply for red knots in Delaware Bay remains a
point of concern. As long as the ARM is in place and functioning as
intended (see Our Response 46 regarding new uncertainty about the
future of the ARM), we anticipate future quotas will continue to be set
at levels that ensure the bait harvest does not impede progress toward
achieving maximum red knot population growth. However, even with highly
successful harvest management under the ARM, the HSC population will
continue to grow only to the extent that it remains limited by harvest;
other factors affecting crab populations cannot be affected by
management of the fishery (see Our Response 46 and Supplemental
Document section Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab
Harvest--Link A, Part 2). Our assessment of the best available data
concludes that the volume of HSC eggs is currently sufficient to
support the Delaware Bay's stopover population of red knots at its
present size; but because of the uncertain trajectory of HSC population
growth, it is not yet known if the egg resource will continue to
adequately support red knot population growth over the next decade.
This conclusion is unchanged from the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60063).
(49) Comment: One State and several other commenters stated that
the ARM model is based on a number of assumptions that the ASMFC has
not adequately tested, and includes a high degree of uncertainty in
many of the data inputs. These include a lack of information on crab
mortality to sufficiently inform the adaptive management process. These
assumptions and sources of uncertainty render the model less risk-
averse than the commenters find acceptable given the dependence of red
knot recovery on a sufficient growth in Delaware Bay's spawning HSC
population. Assumptions and uncertainties noted by the commenters
include (a) the boundary (geographic extent) of the Delaware Bay Region
(which, if incorrect, could allow for harvest of Delaware Bay crabs
that would not be accounted for in the models); (b) illegal harvest;
(c) crabs harvested and used at sea (not landed in any State); (d)
crabs harvested in Federal waters; (e) bycatch; (f) underreporting,
inaccurate or missing reporting of the sex of harvested crabs; and (g)
mortality from the biomedical harvest.
Our Response: While we agree that there is good correlation between
declines in red knots and declines in HSC abundance based on the best
data available, we note that late arrivals of red knots in Delaware Bay
(for unknown reasons) was a key synergistic factor accounting for the
knot's decline in the 2000s (Baker et al. 2004, p. 878). We recognize
the uncertainties and assumptions raised by the commenters. Such
uncertainties were one reason the ARM was developed, as the purpose of
adaptive management is to allow decisions under uncertainty. The
uncertainties and assumptions, many of which are common to all managed
fisheries, mentioned by the commenters were taken into account when the
ARM was developed. We have reviewed the ARM framework at length and
have spoken with the authors of the modeling. We conclude that the ARM
is risk averse and deals explicitly with uncertainties, and that these
uncertainties do not preclude effective decision-making, a conclusion
supported by Smith et al. (2013).
Updates regarding our previous analysis of each uncertainty or
assumption are presented below. While the ARM framework does not
currently account for these factors explicitly, mortality from sources
other than the bait harvest is potentially reflected in the survival
parameters used in the ARM. Based on best available information, we
conclude that explicit addition of these factors to the models would
not change the harvest levels set by the ARM process. However, we have
revised the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Reduced Food
Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Adaptive Resource Management) to
clarify that we expect the ARM framework will continue to adapt as
substantive new information becomes available about important factors
(other than the bait harvest) that may limit the continued growth of
the Delaware Bay HSC population (see Our Response 50). In addition, we
note that, since New Jersey has a full moratorium in place, the actual
harvest of HSCs is less than that recommended by the ARM models.
(a) Delaware Bay Region boundary. In the proposed rule (78 FR
60024, p. 60070), we concluded that the ASMFC's current delineation of
the Delaware Bay Region HSC population is based on best available
information and is appropriate for use in the ARM modeling, but we
acknowledged some uncertainty regarding the population structure and
distribution of Delaware Bay HSCs. The commenters have not provided any
new data to help resolve this uncertainty, or alternate boundaries for
consideration. In documenting the technical underpinnings of the ARM,
the ASMFC (2009b, p. 7) acknowledged that the proportion of Maryland
and Virginia landings that come from Delaware Bay is currently
unresolved, but stated that their approach to estimating this
proportion, based on genetic analysis, was conservative. We have
revised the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Food Availability--
Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Adaptive Resource Management) to state that we
anticipate the ARM process will adapt to substantive new information
that reduces uncertainty about the Delaware Bay HSC population
structure and geographic distribution. See Our Response 114.
(b) Illegal harvest. In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60066-
60067), we evaluated available information regarding illegal harvest
(poaching) of HSCs. We have revised the Supplemental Document (Factor
E--Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A, Part 2)
to update the poaching discussion with new findings from the ASMFC
(2014a). Although notable poaching has been reported outside the
Delaware Bay Region, we have no data to indicate that poaching in the
Delaware Bay Region is occurring at levels that would have population-
level effects. See also Our Response 52 below.
(c) Crabs used at sea. In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60067), we discussed the unregulated harvest of HSCs from Federal
waters that are not landed in any State, but exchanged directly to a
dependent fishery. We have updated the Supplemental Document (Factor
E--Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A, Part 2)
with new information from the ASMFC (2014a) regarding the possibility
of such crabs, mainly crabs caught as bycatch, being harvested and used
at sea. While there is no indication of the extent or amount of this
activity or whether it exceeds the legal bycatch allowances that are
set by each State, there is also no direct evidence of significant
illegal activity and no enforcement cases (ASMFC 2014a, p. 2; M. Hawk
pers. comm. May 27, 2014). We continue to conclude that the level of
any such unreported and unregulated harvest (i.e., that does not result
in landings) is small and unlikely to have population-level effects (M.
Hawk pers. comm.
[[Page 73724]]
April 29, 2013; G. Breese pers. comm. April 26, 2013).
(d) Harvest from Federal waters. Horseshoe crabs caught in Federal
waters and landed in any State count toward the quotas established by
the ASMFC. Horseshoe crabs caught in Federal waters and not landed in
any State (used at sea) were discussed under item (c), above.
(e) Bycatch. Bycatch was discussed in the proposed rule (78 FR
60024, p. 60067). We have updated the Supplemental Document (Factor E--
Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A, Part 2) with
new information about bycatch as well as commercial discard. Horseshoe
crabs caught as bycatch that are landed in any State count toward the
quotas established by the ASMFC and may be kept only if the harvester
holds a permit (M. Hawk pers. comm. May 27, 2014). Horseshoe crabs
caught as bycatch that are not landed in any State (used at sea) were
discussed under item (c), above.
(f) Reporting problems. We have no data that underreporting and
inaccurate or missing reporting of the sex of harvested crabs is
impeding the functioning of the ARM process.
(g) Biomedical harvest. See Our Response 50 below regarding
biomedical harvest of HSCs.
(50) Comment: One State and several other commenters expressed
concern that the mortality of HSCs bled for biomedical use is not
included in the ARM models, and that mortality rates have been
documented well above those used by the ASMFC (e.g., for assessing if
the biomedical threshold has been surpassed). In addition, sublethal
effects on bled crabs are not considered, and the biomedical harvest is
expected to continue growing. Further, it is unclear if bled crabs
captured in Delaware Bay are released near the location of their
capture or nearer to the bleeding facilities, all of which are outside
of the Delaware Bay region and would represent a loss of these crabs to
the Delaware Bay population. One commenter noted that the ASMFC's
Delaware Bay Ecosystem Technical Committee recommended in September
2013 that the ASMFC investigate options to incorporate biomedical data
into future stock assessments, which has not been possible to date due
to confidentiality issues.
Our Response: In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60064-60065),
we noted that biomedical collection is currently not capped, but the
ASMFC may consider implementing action to reduce mortality if estimated
mortality exceeds a threshold of 57,500 crabs. This threshold has been
exceeded several times, but thus far the ASMFC has opted only to issue
voluntary ``best practices'' guidelines to the biomedical industry
(ASMFC 2009a, p. 18). We also noted that, using a constant 15 percent
mortality of bled crabs, the estimated contribution of biomedical
collection to total (biomedical plus bait) mortality coastwide rose
from about 6 percent in 2004 to about 11 percent in 2011. We have
updated the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Reduced Food
Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A, Part 2) with new
information on sublethal effects from bleeding (Anderson et al. 2013),
and to note that, despite a recommendation by the ASMFC's Horseshoe
Crab Technical Committee to use of a range of 5 to 30 percent mortality
(ASMFC 2013c, p. 8; ASMFC 2012a, p. 6), the ASMFC continues to assume a
constant 15 percent mortality rate for bled crabs (M. Hawk pers. comm.
May 28, 2014; ASMFC 2013b, p. 9; ASMFC 2009a, p. 3). Available data
suggest the biomedical industry generally returns bled crabs to their
waters of origin.
As shown in the Supplemental Document (table 23), the 2012 estimate
of coastwide biomedical mortality (about 80,000 crabs) remains small
compared to the coastwide bait harvest (about 730,000 crabs) (note that
these figures are not specific to the Delaware Bay Region). Given the
relative magnitude of biomedical mortality, we conclude that even
considerable uncertainty around this estimate would not currently
prevent the ARM framework from functioning as intended. However, we
support the recommendation of the Technical Committee for ASMFC to
investigate options to incorporate biomedical data into future stock
assessments while avoiding breaches in confidentiality (ASMFC 2013e,
p3). Further, we have revised the Supplemental Document (Factor E--
Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Adaptive Resource
Management) to clarify that we expect the ARM framework will continue
to adapt as substantive new information becomes available about any
important factors (other than the bait harvest) that may limit the
continued growth of the Delaware Bay HSC population. Such factors are
not currently well known, but could include demographic and ecological
constraints on population growth, as well as sources of direct
mortality that are not currently captured by the ARM models (e.g.,
biomedical, poaching, bycatch). In particular, accounting for
biomedical mortality may become important if the contribution of the
biomedical harvest to total mortality continues to increase. It should
be noted, however, that much of the biomedical harvest occurs outside
the Delaware Bay Region and would, therefore, fall outside of the ARM
framework.
(51) Comment: One State commented that removing Mispillion Harbor
from the analysis of annual Delaware Bay egg density estimates has no
biological or statistical justification and introduces bias. The
Delaware Bay Ecosystem Technical Committee reviewed these data and
determined that the high egg densities observed in Mispillion Harbor
are not an outlier because they are consistently high from year to year
and play a significant role for red knots in the Delaware Bay
ecosystem. Furthermore, HSC egg densities in Delaware are increasing
since 2005 (see Kalasz 2013 interim report).
Our Response: In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60068), we
stated that Mispillion Harbor consistently supports a substantial
portion of the red knots in Delaware Bay, and that exclusion of
Mispillion Harbor from statistical analyses is problematic. Thus, we
discussed the statistical relationship between egg density and red knot
weight gain both with and without Mispillion Harbor, as reported by Dey
et al. (2013, pp. 18-19). We have added the findings of Kalasz (2014)
to the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--
Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link B, Part 2).
(52) Comment: One State commented that the proposed rule contains
an unsubstantiated allegation of HSC poaching as a factor impacting HSC
populations, which is unreasonable given that the current HSC
population is likely no less than the estimated 20 million HSCs in the
Delaware Bay in 2003, indications that the spawning HSC population in
the Delaware Bay has been stable or increasing, the scrutiny and
capabilities of State enforcement officials, the fact that HSC bait
prices have increased tremendously in response to restrictions put in
place (as evidenced by the import of Asian HSCs), and the difficulty in
concealing large quantities of [illegal] HSCs. Conversely, another
commenter stated that they have witnessed HSC harvest in a salt marsh
on the North Shore of Long Island, New York, and found that oversight
of harvest regulations is lacking. In addition, this commenter also
believes that the harvest limit is too high.
Our Response: We disagree with this characterization of our
conclusions in the proposed rule. In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60066), we reported that the ASMFC's Delaware Bay
[[Page 73725]]
Ecosystem Technical Committee had speculated about possible factors
that may explain the lack of recent HSC population growth in the
Delaware Bay Region, but committee members did not reach consensus
regarding which factors are more likely (ASMFC 2012c, p. 12; ASMFC
2012d, p. 2). The possibility of excessive documented and undocumented
mortality was among these factors (ASMFC 2012d, p. 2). Therefore, we
further investigated several possible sources of additional mortality
outside the authorized bait harvest quotas, including biomedical
mortality, poaching, bycatch, and unregulated harvest (i.e., from
Federal waters and not landed in any State) (see Our Response 49).
Specific to poaching, we presented documented instances of enforcement
actions in New Jersey and New York. We have updated the poaching
discussion in the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Reduced Food
Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A--Part 2) with new findings
from the ASMFC (2014a), which further document notable levels of
illegal harvest outside of Delaware Bay, but which have not changed our
conclusion that minimal poaching (well below the levels that would
cause population-level effects) has been observed in the Delaware Bay
Region. Specific to oversight in New York, officials are aware of
significant harvest pressure in the spring, and anticipate possible
illegal activity by implementing significant spring enforcement details
(ASMFC 2014a, p. 1). We agree that the best available estimate of the
HSC population in Delaware Bay is about 20 million crabs and that
spawning HSC abundance has been stable, though not increasing (see Our
Response 109). We also agree that poaching is receiving appropriate
scrutiny from enforcement officials (ASMFC 2014a). See Our Responses 2
and 120 regarding the price of bait and the import of Asian HSCs.
(53) Comment: One commenter stated that dredging beginning in the
1960s has degraded HSC habitat.
Our Response: In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60039), we
addressed effects to HSC spawning habitat from shoreline stabilization
including hard structures and beach nourishment, but not from dredging.
We do not doubt that dredging has and continues to degrade HSC habitat
in some locations. However, we do not address this issue in the
Supplemental Document because we have no information that dredging is
impacting HSC habitat in Delaware Bay, which is the only region in
which red knots are highly reliant on HSC eggs as a food resource. That
said, we have revised the Supplemental Document (Migration and
Wintering Food) with new information that HSC eggs are eaten, and often
preferred, by red knots along other parts of the U.S. Atlantic coast,
and may be a locally important component of the knot's spring diet.
Thus, we anticipate that the recovery planning process will include
evaluating threats to the HSC egg supply in other areas outside
Delaware Bay.
(54) Comment: One State commented that the recent reduction in food
availability in Delaware Bay was identified as the most detailed and
persuasive threat, but this threat affects only those birds that
migrate along the Atlantic coast, and it may not affect all migrating
birds equally. The birds wintering along the northern coast of South
America or along the Florida peninsula should have a lesser need to
gain as much weight because of their shorter migration and may be
minimally affected by food reduction. Another commenter stated that the
Tierra del Fuego wintering population, which relies most heavily on
HSCs, has declined disproportionately.
Our Response: We agree that best available data suggest southern-
wintering red knots (from Argentina and Chile) are more reliant on
Delaware Bay than are northern-wintering birds (e.g., from northern
Brazil and the Southeast), as discussed in the proposed rule (Rufa Red
Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 31-33). We have revised the
Supplemental Document (Wintering and Migration Food--Possible
Differential Reliance on Horseshoe Crab Eggs) to more clearly present
these data, and to emphasize observed differences between red knots
that winter in Argentina and Chile versus knots that winter farther
north (Wintering--Northern Versus Southern Wintering Regions;
Migration--Differences in Migration Strategy by Wintering Area).
However, we conclude that the best available data are insufficient to
evaluate effects of the HSC harvest on northern-wintering red knots
over recent decades, and we cannot conclude they were ``minimally
affected'' by food reduction in Delaware Bay. We presented information
about the Tierra del Fuego wintering population decline in the proposed
rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance pp. 39-45; 53) and have
revised the Supplemental Document (Wintering--Northern Versus Southern
Wintering Regions) to clarify and emphasize this point.
(55) Comment: One State commented that the 70 percent loss of HSC
spawning habitat in Delaware Bay reported in the proposed rule due to
Hurricane Sandy is only reflective of New Jersey and not, necessarily,
Delaware. The State said it is also difficult to determine how the 70
percent loss was quantified or how much of any such loss can actually
be attributed to that one event. Another commenter agreed with the
estimate of a 70 percent decrease in HSC spawning from Hurricane Sandy
and noted that, while the beach was restored in time for the red knot
spring stopover because of successful fundraising efforts, a similar
winter or early spring storm could result in beaches stripped of sand
with no time or funds for restoration.
Our Response: As noted in the proposed rule, biologists found a 70
percent decrease in optimal HSC spawning habitat in New Jersey
following Hurricane Sandy (Niles et al. 2012, p. 1), and beach
nourishment is being pursued as a means of restoring this habitat
(Niles et al. 2013a, entire Niles et al. 2013b, entire). We have
revised the Supplemental Document (Factor A--Accelerating Sea Level
Rise--United States--Northeast and Mid-Atlantic--Delaware Bay Horseshoe
Crab Habitat) to clarify that the 70 percent loss refers to the New
Jersey side of Delaware Bay only, and that this loss is relative to
2002 but was identified by Niles et al. (2012) to be mostly a result of
Hurricane Sandy.
We agree that changes in storm patterns may be a threat to the red
knot. While variation in weather is a natural occurrence and is
normally not considered a threat to the survival of a species,
persistent changes in the frequency, intensity, or timing of storms at
key locations where red knots congregate (e.g., key stopover areas) due
to climate change can pose a threat. Storms impact migratory shorebirds
like the red knot both directly and indirectly, including through
changes in habitat suitability. Beach losses accumulate over time,
mostly during storms, and even the long-term coastal response to sea
level rise depends on the magnitudes and timing of stochastically
unpredictable future storm events (Ashton et al. 2007, pp. 7, 9).
Should storm patterns change, red knots in Delaware Bay would be more
sensitive to the timing and location of coastal storms than to a change
in overall frequency. Changes in the patterns of tropical or extra-
tropical storms that increase the frequency or severity of these events
in Delaware Bay during or just prior to May would likely have dramatic
effects on red knots and their habitats (Kalasz 2008, p. 41) (e.g.,
through direct mortality, delayed HSC spawning, delayed departure for
the breeding grounds, and short-term habitat loss) (78 FR 60024, pp.
60028-
[[Page 73726]]
60029, 60032, 60034, 60037, 60073). This information is presented,
unchanged and under the same headings, in the Supplemental Document.
(56) Comment: One State commented that the potential near-term
threat posed by sea level rise is reduced by the fact that coastal
habitats are likely to shift and re-form as sea level changes, except
in those areas that are armored or constrained by coastal
infrastructure (78 FR 60024, p. 60032).
Our Response: We agree. However, as noted in the proposed rule (78
FR 60024, p. 60035), if shorelines experience a decades-long period of
high instability and landward migration, the formation rate of new
beach habitats may be slower than the rate at which existing intertidal
habitats are lost. In addition, low-lying and narrow islands may
disintegrate rather than migrate, representing a net loss of red knot
habitat. Furthermore, the extent to which habitat migration is
constrained by human activity is extensive--about 40 percent of the
U.S. coastline within the range of the red knot is already developed
(78 FR 60024, p. 60042). These conclusions are supported by new studies
evaluating the vulnerability of shorebirds (including Calidris canutus)
to sea level rise (Galbraith et al. 2014, p. 7; Iwamura et al. 2013, p.
6; National Wildlife Foundation 2013, p. 28; Whitman et al. 2013, pp.
2, 19, 64); we have added these updates to the Supplemental Document
(Factor A--Sea Level Rise).
(57) Comment: One State commented that, within the listing
proposal, all of the potential impacts that are predicted to occur as a
result of sea level rise are based upon geomorphic modeling that
assumes a 1-meter (m) increase in sea level. At the current rate of sea
level rise, which ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 millimeters (mm)/year (78 FR
60024, pg. 60030), the 1-m threshold will not be reached for another
140 to 300 years. Even the low end of this range is well beyond the
temporal scope that should be applied to a listing decision.
Our Response: We disagree with the commenter's projected rate of
sea level rise, and conclude that appreciable effects to red knot
habitats from accelerating rates of rising sea levels are likely to
begin over the next few decades, not centuries (Iwamura et al. 2013, p.
6; Miller et al. 2013, pp. 3, 14; Vargas et al. 2013, pp. 22, 80;
Galbraith et al. 2002, pp. 177-178). In fact, erosion has already led
to loss of roost habitat in Delaware Bay (Niles et al. 2008, p. 97) and
we expect ongoing erosion due to sea level rise to accelerate. As
discussed in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60029), and updated in
the Supplemental Document (Factor A--Sea Level Rise--Rates), the rate
of sea level rise has accelerated and is ``very likely'' to increase
further (IPCC 2013a, p. 25). Although estimated future rates remain
rather uncertain, some research suggests that sea levels could
potentially rise another 2.5 to 6.5 ft (0.8 to 2 m) by 2100. The IPCC
(2013a, p. 26) recently concluded there is ``low confidence'' in sea
level rise projections over 3.3 ft (1 m) by 2100. However, for the most
recent National Climate Assessment (Melillo et al. 2014), Parris et al.
(2012, p. 2) evaluated various sea level rise scenarios and have ``very
high confidence'' that global mean sea level rise will be between 0.7
and 6.6 ft (0.2 and 2.0 m) by 2100, which is generally the range we
considered in this listing determination.
(58) Comment: Several States noted the beneficial effects of beach
nourishment in maintaining habitat for red knots and other shorebirds.
These States urged the Service to use caution when discussing the
detrimental impacts of hard structures and beach nourishment as
restoration or coastal protection strategies. These States commented
that experience clearly demonstrates the value of such techniques to
red knot beach habitats in Louisiana, and that beach nourishment is the
best and only method to maintain and prevent the loss of suitable HSC
spawning habitat due to erosion and sea level rise in a hydrologic
system with limited sediment input, such as Delaware Bay. Likewise, one
commenter noted that not all portions of the coast are equally impacted
by erosion (i.e., from sea level rise); thus, restrictions stemming
from listing should be allowed to vary geographically and should leave
open management options for habitat and beach restoration projects.
Our Response: We make a distinction between beach nourishment and
beach stabilization structures (i.e., hardening structures). With few
exceptions, we have concluded that hard structures are detrimental to
red knot habitat (Winn et al. 2013, p. 22). In contrast, beach
nourishment may be either detrimental or beneficial depending on the
circumstances (Nordstrom and Mauriello 2001, entire; Defeo et al. 2009,
p. 4; Rice 2009, entire; Peterson et al. 2006, entire; Peterson and
Bishop 2005, entire; Greene 2002, p. 5). The effects of beach
nourishment are expected typically to be short in duration. Human
attempts to harden the shoreline are considered generally a threat to
the red knot, because hardening curtails the natural coastal processes
that create and maintain the most suitable red knot habitats.
Notwithstanding our overall conclusion on stabilization, we noted in
the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60037) that, in a few isolated
locations, hard structures may enhance red knot habitat, or may provide
artificial habitat. We also noted that, where shorebird habitat has
been severely reduced or eliminated by hard stabilization structures,
beach nourishment may be the only means available to replace any
intertidal habitat for as long as the hard structures are maintained
(78 FR 60024, p. 60037). Further, wholesale reorganizations of barrier
systems and the loss of some low-lying islands may occur under
scenarios of rapid sea level rise, and shorelines may experience a
decades-long period of high instability during which the formation rate
of new red knot habitats may be slower than the loss of existing
habitats, as indicated in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60032,
60035).
We agree with the commenters that, under such circumstances, human
intervention in coastal processes may be the only means of maintaining
shorebird habitat. Due to local and regional factors, Louisiana is
already experiencing extreme rates of land loss and barrier island
disintegration; we acknowledge that Louisiana's stabilization efforts
may be maintaining habitat in areas where it would otherwise be lost.
We likewise acknowledge the benefits of beach nourishment to red knot
foraging habitat in Delaware Bay. Thus, we have revised the
Supplemental Document (Factor A--U.S. Shoreline Stabilization and
Coastal Development) to further note that both hard and soft (beach
nourishment) stabilization efforts may also benefit red knots under
circumstances of rapid erosion and land loss due to accelerating rates
of sea level rise, locally or regionally exacerbated by limited
sediment inputs. Coastal management projects generally involve Federal
funding or authorization and may, therefore, be reviewed on a case-by-
case basis under section 7 of the Act, thus ensuring flexibility for
geographic differences.
(59) Comment: One State and several other commenters stated that
the loss or impairment of other migration staging areas (outside of
Delaware Bay) is of great importance to the red knot especially at low
population levels. Geolocator data show that red knots spend
considerable portions of their life cycle along the Atlantic coast, and
that their habitat use and needs during fall migration demand greater
attention. July and August are the months when the
[[Page 73727]]
greatest numbers of red knots occur along the Atlantic coast. This
period is also the time when beaches and other coastal areas are under
the most pressure from human activities, thus creating the greatest
potential for disturbance to migrating red knots. Wintering areas used
by red knots, particularly in the Southeast, also are subject to
intense and persistent recreational use.
Our Response: We agree. In the proposed rule and in the
Supplemental Document, we present a comprehensive analysis of threats
to the red knot from habitat loss (Factor A) and disturbance (Factor E)
throughout its range. Conservation actions to abate these threats will
be evaluated during the recovery planning process.
(60) Comment: One State and several other commenters noted that red
knots are part of one of the largest congregations of migrating
shorebirds in North America, a congregation that converges along the
shores of the Delaware Bay and contributes significantly to the local
economy (e.g., through ecotourism). The threatened status of the red
knot is substantiated by the similar decline in a long list of other
Arctic-nesting shorebirds, including other species that use Delaware
Bay as a primary staging area during spring migration and rely on HSC
eggs during the spring staging period. Further, listing the red knot
and creating the basis for recovery will improve the situation for all
of these shorebirds. Likewise, some commenters concluded that listing
the red knot will benefit other shorebirds that share its wintering
habitat in the United States. Conversely, some commenters suggested
that listing the red knot may not be necessary because this species
already receives incidental protections due to its geographic overlap
with other protected species and protected areas.
Our Response: The Service recognizes the importance of Delaware Bay
to other shorebird species besides the red knot, and the importance of
the bay's ecosystem to local communities. We also recognize that
listing the red knot may bring incidental conservation benefits to
other species that share its habitats in Delaware Bay and rangewide.
However, the Act requires that we use only the best available
scientific and commercial data to evaluate whether a species meets the
definition of a threatened or endangered species based on the five
``listing'' factors (section 4(a)(1)(b)). Thus, in making a listing
determination, we may not consider the implications of possible listing
for other species, the broader ecosystem, or local communities. (Once a
species is listed, however, conservation of its supporting ecosystems
is a principal focus of our recovery planning, and a central purpose of
the Act.) We evaluated the conservation efforts that are already
benefitting the red knot, including those that accrue from its overlap
with other listed species and its occurrence in some protected areas.
Notwithstanding several important ongoing conservation efforts, we
conclude that the rufa red knot meets the definition of a threatened
species, based on best available data. See Our Response 2 regarding
other implications of listing that we may not consider in evaluating
whether a species meets the definition of a threatened or endangered
species under the Act.
(61) Comment: Juvenile red knot survival and recruitment into the
adult population may currently be the most significant factor facing
the species. Over the past decade, juvenile survival has been low and
recruitment into the adult population has been limited. Little is known
about where juveniles spend their first 2 years or their survival rate.
Given the suggestion that their range is in the Caribbean or northern
South America, there is potential that hunting could impact survival,
as juveniles would be more vulnerable to hunting pressure.
Our Response: We agree it is possible that low juvenile survival
and recruitment may be limiting population growth, and that juvenile
survival may be impacted by hunting (e.g., if juveniles spend a large
percent of their annual life cycle in regions where shorebirds are
hunted, if juveniles are na[iuml]ve to hunting, or both). Because we
find these theories plausible and worthy of further investigation, we
have mentioned them in the Supplemental Document (Longevity and
Survival; Factor B--Hunting--Caribbean and South America). However, we
note that these theories currently lack supporting documentation. We
have also updated the Supplemental Document (Breeding--Nonbreeding
Birds; Wintering--Juveniles; Migration) with the first two available
geolocator results from juvenile birds showing where they spent their
first years.
(62) Comment: Several States and other commenters stated that wind
energy development was an unlikely threat to the red knot in the
interior United States because research by Newstead et al. (2013)
indicates that midcontinental migrating birds travel at a rate of
approximately 58 km per hour. It is unlikely that birds could migrate
this rapidly by flying at low altitude. Most likely, these birds are
migrating at a height of several thousand feet and are passing well
above all wind turbines and communications towers. Conversely, one
commenter rebutted that the referenced speed is an average of the
minimum flight speeds of those individuals. In reality, birds
experience both headwinds and favorable tailwinds over the duration of
a 2- or 3-day nonstop flight, which would effectively reduce or
increase their speed, respectively. It is also likely that the birds
would increase or decrease their altitude in response to those
conditions, so it is not appropriate to infer that all flights follow
the same trajectory or altitude. Further, red knots and other
shorebirds are capable of considerable speeds in still air, approaching
or exceeding 58 km per hour. Thus, red knots would not necessarily need
the wind assistance found at high altitudes to achieve the estimated
(average, minimum) flight speed.
Our Response: As discussed in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60090), some experts estimate the normal cruising altitude of red knots
during migration to be in the range of 3,281 to 9,843 ft (1,000 to
3,000 m), well above the estimated height of even a 10-MW turbine (681
ft; 207.5 m). However, much lower flight altitudes may be expected when
red knots encounter bad weather or high winds, on ascent or descent
from long-distance flights, during short-distance flights if they are
blown off course, during short coastal migration flights, or during
daily commuting flights (e.g., between foraging and roosting habitats)
(Burger et al. 2012c, pp. 375-376; Burger et al. 2011, p. 346).
Supporting evidence for these expert opinions comes from other Calidris
canutus subspecies and other shorebirds in Europe (see Supplemental
Document section Factor E--Wind Energy Development--Offshore). Although
the aforementioned sources constitute best available information, we
lack any direct empirical data to verify the typical migration altitude
of rufa red knots, or the degree to which they adjust their migration
altitudes in response to weather or other factors. We agree that,
typically, red knots on long-distance, nonstop flights likely migrate
at high altitudes of 3,281 feet (1,000 m) or more (Burger et al. 2011,
p. 346). However, we disagree with the interpretation that the minimum
flight speed calculated by Newstead et al. (2013) indirectly indicates
the migration altitude of red knots along the Central Flyway; thus, we
have not incorporated this interpretation into the Supplemental
Document. (Also see Our Response 22.)
(63) Comment: One State commented that the proposed rule failed to
include the dwarf surf clam (Mulinia lateralis)
[[Page 73728]]
as an important food resource to fall migrating red knots in Georgia.
This State noted densities of dwarf surf clam vary widely from year to
year, appearing to drive the number of red knots using certain areas,
and they are concerned that a number of predicted changes associated
with global climate change (ocean acidification and warming) may
negatively affect this important prey item.
Our Response: In the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and
Abundance, pp. 26-27), we noted that the spatial distribution of red
knots has been correlated with prey availability in Georgia, and that
the dwarf surf clam is a prey species in Georgia during winter. We have
revised the Supplemental Document (Migration and Wintering Food) to
indicate that the dwarf surf clam is also a primary prey species for
knots during fall. We have also revised the Supplemental Document
(Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--Ocean Acidification; Temperature
Changes) to include new information provided by the commenter regarding
the likely impacts of climate change on the dwarf surf clam in Georgia.
(64) Comment: Several States and other commenters provided new
information regarding habitat and prey in inland areas (e.g., some
knots may use saline lakes in southern Canada, such as Reed, Chaplin,
and Quill Lakes, that are known to support large, mixed-species
shorebird concentrations due to abundant invertebrate resources), while
other commenters contend that red knots may not use inland stopover
sites during migration because of the unpredictable availability of
appropriate prey. Within the interior portion of the Central Flyway,
water levels fluctuate dramatically; therefore, few sites have reliable
gastropod resources, and none support freshwater mussels at a depth
that would be available to red knots.
Our Response: We agree that new information available since the
proposed rule was published suggests that some red knots likely use
inland saline lakes as stopover habitat in the Northern Great Plains.
We have no information to indicate whether red knots may also use
inland freshwater habitats during migration, but some of the new
information discussed under Our Response 29 suggests that certain
freshwater areas may warrant further study as potential stopover
habitats. We have added this new information to the Supplemental
Document (Migration--Midcontinent; Migration and Wintering Habitat--
Inland). We also agree that inland prey resources may be unpredictable.
Newstead et al. (2013, p. 57) supported the idea that inland prey
resources may be unpredictable, but showed inland stopovers are used by
red knots in some years. At least on smaller geographic scales (e.g.,
stopover areas in Argentina, Georgia, South Carolina, Virginia, the
Atlantic coast of New Jersey, and Delaware Bay), knot distribution has
been shown to follow areas of high prey availability, suggesting some
plasticity in migration strategy as prey resources vary in time and
space (Musmeci et al. 2011). Likewise, Newstead et al. (2013, pp. 57-
58) have suggested that knot use of the Northern Great Plains may vary
from year to year based on water levels. Geolocator data indicate the
midcontinental flyway is consistently used by some birds, but the
stopovers within this migratory route may vary depending on
environmental conditions. These conclusions continue to be borne out by
many more geolocator tracks that have yet to be published (D. Newstead
pers. comm. May 8, 2014).
(65) Comment: Several States and other commenters suggested the
Service should conduct a thorough literature review of all available
resources to determine where the red knot occurs regularly because the
species' conservation and recovery will be most effective if they
remain focused on the important coastal habitats that are used by all
individuals.
Our Response: We agree with this conclusion, but assert that we
have already conducted a thorough review of the literature available.
Identifying and protecting the network of important red knot sites is
work that has been ongoing by an international community of shorebird
researchers and conservationists since the late 1970s and continues
today. The results of this extensive work were reviewed in depth for
the proposed rule and the Supplemental Document, and will be further
utilized and built upon during recovery planning.
Public Comments
(66) Comment: A commenter stated that the proposed rule does not
comply with applicable law because the ``foreseeable future'' used by
the Service in this instance is not expressly identified or otherwise
explained. Upon reconsideration, should the Service decide to proceed
with a threatened listing, it must issue a new proposed rule that
clearly identifies the applicable ``foreseeable future,'' explains the
Service's bases for identifying that foreseeable future, and describes
how the Service's interpretation is consistent with the language and
intent of the Act. The best available scientific data and information,
previous findings by the Service, and applicable case law all dictate
that a foreseeable future premised upon climate change impacts does not
extend past mid-century.
Our Response: The Act does not define the term ``foreseeable
future,'' and the Act and its implementing regulations and policies do
not require the Service to quantify the time period of foreseeable
future. For each threat evaluated in the proposed rule and in the
Supplemental Document, we have specified, when possible, the time
horizon over which we conclude likely effects to the red knot can be
reasonably foreseen.
(67) Comment: A commenter stated that if the Service proceeds with
a determination to list the rufa red knot as threatened, the Service
must issue a special rule pursuant to section 4(d) of the Act that
exempts from the section 9 take prohibition all lawful activities that
have not been found to directly and adversely impact the rufa red knot
species. To avoid unnecessary and unintended burdens, or the misuse of
the Act, the Service should propose a special 4(d) rule. Further, the
Service's rationale in support of the polar bear 4(d) rule applies
equally to the red knot.
Our Response: The Act does not specify particular prohibitions for
threatened species. Instead, under section 4(d) of the Act, the
Secretary of the Interior was given the discretion to issue such
regulations as she deems necessary and advisable to provide for the
conservation of such species. Exercising this discretion, the Service
has developed general prohibitions (50 CFR 17.31) and exceptions to
those prohibitions (50 CFR 17.32) under the Act that apply to most
threatened species. At this time, we have no information to suggest
that the take prohibitions are not ``necessary and advisable to provide
for the conservation'' of the rufa red knot to justify a species-
specific 4(d) rule that exempts certain activities from the take
prohibition. However, we will reevaluate this decision in the future if
new information becomes available that indicates a change in the 4(d)
regulations may be necessary and advisable for the red knot's
conservation.
(68) Comment: One commenter requested clarification regarding how
the public comments are evaluated by the Service, and how different
comments are weighed, so that the analysis and decision-making are
based on the input received.
Our Response: We have reviewed all the public comments for
substantive new information and for any
[[Page 73729]]
substantiated alternative interpretations of information we previously
considered. To the extent that such new information and new
interpretations represent best available data, we have incorporated
them into the Supplemental Document and evaluated them in light of our
threats assessment using the five listing factors set forth in section
4 of the Act. Oral testimony on a proposed rulemaking given at a public
hearing is given the same weight as written comments received during
the open public comment period.
(69) Comment: One commenter stated that the Service failed to
conduct, and provide for comment on, analysis required by the Act in
its proposal to list the rufa red knot.
Our Response: We disagree. As stated above, the proposed rule to
list the red knot as threatened under the Act was published in the
Federal Register on September 30, 2013 (78 FR 60024) and made available
for public comment for a total of 133 days (78 FR 60024; 79 FR 18869;
79 FR 27548). In addition, three separate public hearings were held on
the proposal, which exceeded the requirement to hold one hearing if
requested. As explained above under numerous responses to comments, we
appropriately evaluated whether the red knot meets the definition of a
threatened or endangered species under sections 4(a) and 4(b) of the
Act.
(70) Comment: Several commenters expressed concern about how we
conduct peer review or use peer-reviewed documents, stating that
scientific peer review should happen before proposing a species for
listing, not during the public comment period, and that the Service
should include the peer review results next to any cited information
that it disseminates to the public in hearings, documents, and the
Federal Register. Likewise, one commenter stated that designation of a
species as threatened must be based on unquestionable scientific
evidence gathered and analyzed before the designation, not after.
Our Response: As detailed in Our Response 71 below, we use several
sources of data in our listing determinations, including articles from
peer-reviewed journals. In addition, the Service's 1994 Interagency
Cooperative Policy for Peer Review in Endangered Species Act Activities
(59 FR 34270) specifies that we will ``(a) Solicit the expert opinions
of three appropriate and independent specialists regarding the
pertinent scientific or commercial data and assumptions . . . (b)
Summarize in the final decision document (rule or notice of withdrawal)
the opinions of all independent peer reviewers received.'' We have
complied with the Policy by soliciting peer review during the open
public comment period so that any peer review comments received would
be transparently available to the public; peer reviewer comments were
posted in the proposed rule's docket at www.regulations.gov along with
all other received comments. In addition, we made the list of
references reviewed and cited for the proposed rule available via the
proposed rule's docket at www.regulations.gov, properly identified
those citations in the proposed rule, and made it clear in the proposed
rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60025) that these references, along with other
information in the decision record, were available for public
inspection by appointment at the Service's New Jersey Field Office.
Information about the proposed rule summarized in presentations at the
public hearings may not have explicitly identified the citations due to
size limitations on the PowerPoint(copyright) slides, but
hearing participants could obtain this information by reading the
proposed rule and supporting documents, visiting www.regulations.gov,
or making an appointment with the New Jersey Field Office. As required
by the Act, we relied on best available data in determining that the
red knot meets the definition of a threatened species in both the
proposed and final rules. We disagree that listing requires
``unquestionable scientific evidence.'' Rather, as discussed in Our
Response 27, the Service is required to rely solely upon the ``best
available'' science, even if that science is uncertain. New information
that becomes available after listing will be considered during recovery
planning and implementation, and in the course of status reviews we
conduct every 5 years to determine if the species continues to meet the
definition of a threatened or endangered species.
(71) Comment: One commenter suggested that the quality of the data
in the proposed rule was undermined by the number of personal
communications and unpublished sources cited in the document. The
reliance on unpublished data and personal communications suggest a link
to falsified data. Likewise, one commenter stated that the information
contained in the proposal and in supporting documents does not meet the
scientific standards, and another commenter found that the best
available science is poor and incomplete science at best.
Our Response: We disagree. The Service is required to make listing
determinations based on the best scientific and commercial data
available. Sources of data include peer-reviewed journal articles;
field notes and other unpublished data; and personal communications
from species, habitat, and policy experts. We analyze all available
sources of data and use our best professional judgment to determine
their credibility, in accordance with applicable data standards
(Interagency Policy on Information Standards Under the Endangered
Species Act (59 FR 34271); Information Quality Act (P.L. 106-554,
section 515); Information Quality Guidelines and Peer Review (USFWS
2012f, entire)). As required by the Interagency Policy on Information
Standards Under the Endangered Species Act, all sources we reviewed
have been retained as part of the decision record, and all sources we
relied upon are listed in the Literature Cited section of the
Supplemental Document and were available for public review. We are not
aware of any documented instances of falsification or any other
scientifically unethical practices associated with any of the data we
cited in the proposed rule, this final rule, or the Supplemental
Document. As discussed in Our Response 27, the ``best available
science'' requirement does not equate to the best possible science.
Although we acknowledge certain data gaps (78 FR 60024-60025) and
uncertainties, some of which are inherent in all natural systems and
all evaluations of future conditions, we conclude that overall the best
available data are sufficient to document several population-level
threats to the red knot, as well as its reduced population size
relative to the early 1980s, and thus conclude that the red knot meets
the definition of a threatened species.
(72) Comment: One commenter suggested that some red knot
researchers inappropriately published the same data in two or more
publications; designed research to give inaccurate results; and
excluded, altered, or manipulated data. Further, vague or ambiguous
language in the red knot data may rise to falsification, fabrication,
and scientific fraud. This commenter states that the inclusion of
flawed data in the 2007 red knot status assessment prepared for and
disseminated by the Service violates the Service's information quality
standards; the Service was informed during peer review of the 2007
status review that several of the citations were in error, including
inappropriate interpretation of data as evidence of red knot declines.
Our Response: We disagree. We are not aware of any documented
instances of falsification or any other scientifically unethical
practices associated with any of the data we cited in the proposed
rule, this final rule, or the Supplemental
[[Page 73730]]
Document. See Our Response 71 above on our data standards. The 2007
document ``Status Review of the Red Knot (Calidris canutus rufa) in the
Western Hemisphere'' was prepared for the Service by a group of
independent red knot experts and made available on our Web site. An
updated version was published independent of the Service in 2008 (Niles
et al. 2008, entire). While some of the information in Niles et al.
(2008) has been subsequently updated with new information and improved
insights, we have used appropriate information from Niles et al. (2008)
in our listing determination whenever we consider it reliable, current,
and best available.
(73) Comment: One commenter stated that the Service has red knot
bird banding data from North and South America and will not release
these data, citing privilege to authors.
Our Response: This comment is incorrect. Most data regarding the
marking and resighting of red knots are housed and maintained by
BandedBirds.org, which is affiliated with the New Jersey Audubon
Society. Although the Service has provided support to BandedBirds.org,
we do not operate this database, nor set the policies regarding the
dissemination of the data it contains. Throughout the proposed rule and
the Supplemental Document, we present summary information, analysis,
and conclusions drawn from BandedBirds.org data. This is possible
because we obtained limited excerpts from the database through a data
sharing agreement with BandedBirds.org, and we coordinated with the
database manager to ensure that we obtained all necessary permissions
from the individual contributors of the data, as per the policies of
BandedBirds.org. These excerpts have been and remain available to the
public by appointment at the Service's New Jersey Field Office. Certain
red knot resightings data are also available to the public directly at
BandedBirds.org, and access to additional data can be requested from
the database administrator.
(74) Comment: One commenter noted that there are six subspecies of
Calidris canutus and that the Service needs to know more about the
other five subspecies to make a decision about C.c. rufa. This
commenter contends that all the subspecies migrate to the same area,
albeit by different routes, and breed in the same area. However, no one
knows for certain if they interbreed or not.
Our Response: We disagree with this assessment. In the proposed
rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 4-7, 9), we presented
best available data that the three recognized North American subspecies
do not interbreed. We have updated the Supplemental Document
(Subspecies Nonbreeding Distributions) with new information regarding
the nonbreeding ranges of Calidris canutus rufa and C.c. roselaari.
There are a few areas of known overlap and additional regions of
potential overlap between the nonbreeding distributions of these two
subspecies. However, all newly available information supports our
previous conclusions that the breeding areas of these two subspecies
are distinct, with C.c. roselaari breeding in Alaska and eastern
Russia, and C.c. canutus breeding in the central Canadian Arctic.
Although C.c. islandica breeds in Canada just north of C.c. rufa, the
islandica subspecies migrates and winters in Europe and does not occur
in the United States. The other three subspecies do not occur in North
America.
(75) Comment: One commenter stated that the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, cited by
the respected Cornell University Lab of Ornithology, lists the
conservation status of the red knot as one of ``Least Concern'' and,
therefore, concludes the science does not support the Service's
proposal.
Our Response: Under section 4 of the Act, a species shall be listed
if it meets the definition of a threatened or endangered species
because of any of the five factors, considering solely best available
scientific and commercial data. We may not adopt the conservation
classification criteria of other agencies or organizations, such as the
IUCN. However, we do evaluate and consider the underlying data other
agencies or organizations have relied upon in making their own
conservation classifications. Thus, we have reviewed the IUCN Red List
(BirdLife International 2012), and found that the data presented by
this source are for the entire global population (all six subspecies)
of Calidris canutus, and are not specific to the rufa red knot, and are
thus not relevant to this listing determination for the rufa
subspecies. However, based on this review of the IUCN's underlying data
sources, we have made a minor revision to the Supplemental Document,
specifically, the addition of a new reference (Goldfeder and Blanco in
Boere et al. (2006, p. 193)), which supports several of the threats
that were already detailed in the proposed rule.
(76) Comment: One commenter stated that many threats to red knots
are pervasive across the Gulf coast. For example, habitat loss is
occurring across the Gulf Coast (from alteration of hydrology to
development and from sea level rise to mismanagement of the Mississippi
River), and disturbance of migrating and wintering birds is common.
Our Response: We agree that these and other threats are likely
contributing to habitat loss, anthropogenic mortality, or both, along
the Gulf coast, and thus contribute to the red knot's threatened
status, particularly considering the cumulative effects of these and
other threats rangewide.
(77) Comment: Several commenters expressed concern over the
apparent contradiction between the Service justifying a threatened
status for red knot while acknowledging difficulty in estimating the
total population of red knots and recognizing that knot numbers have
been stable in recent years.
Our Response: First, we disagree that there is a contradiction.
While a precise estimate of a species population is an ideal piece of
information to have, it is not a required piece of information for a
listing determination. Under section 4 of the Act, a species shall be
listed if it meets the definition of a threatened or endangered species
because of any (one or more) of the five factors (threats), considering
solely best available scientific and commercial data. Although many
species proposed for listing have undergone, or are undergoing, a
population decline, declining numbers are not required for listing if a
species is facing sufficient threats, now or in the foreseeable future,
to meet the definition of a threatened or endangered species. Based on
our analysis of the five factors, we conclude the red knot meets the
definition of a threatened species, particularly considering the
cumulative effects of ongoing and emerging threats, and considering
that several populations of red knots have already undergone
considerable declines and remain at low levels. Second, although we
have concluded that no current, reliable, rangewide population estimate
is available, we disagree that no reliable population statistics are
available. We have evaluated the best available population data,
consisting of survey data for specific regions (Rufa Red Knot Ecology
and Abundance, pp. 38-52; Population Surveys and Estimates in the
Supplemental Document); see Our Responses 37, 38, and 44 for additional
information.
(78) Comment: One commenter stated that the threat identified by
the Service as driving the recent population decline has been addressed
by management of
[[Page 73731]]
the HSC fishery. Therefore, the red knot may already be on a course to
recovery without listing.
Our Response: We disagree with this conclusion. Although the threat
from HSC harvest is adequately managed under the ARM and red knot
populations have stabilized, knot numbers remain at low levels. We
continue to conclude that reduced food availability at the Delaware Bay
stopover site due to commercial harvest of the HSC--combined with late
arrival of birds in Delaware Bay for unknown reasons--were the primary
causal factors in the decline of rufa red knot populations in the 2000s
(78 FR 60024, pp. 60063, 60076). The threat of late arrivals has not
been abated, and further asynchronies are likely in the future due to
climate change. In addition, we conclude that a number of other threats
are likely contributing to habitat loss, anthropogenic mortality, or
both, and thus contribute to the red knot's threatened status,
particularly considering the cumulative effects of these threats, and
that several populations of this species have already undergone
considerable declines. (Also see Our Response 46 regarding new
uncertainty about the future of the ARM.)
(79) Comment: Several commenters stated that there are insufficient
data to draw credible conclusions about the possible adaptation and
recovery of this species. One commenter stated that the species having
existed for at least hundreds of years is evidence that it has adapted
and survived many previous cycles of natural change without human
intervention. Likewise, another commenter stated that, in the millions
of years red knots have been in existence, extreme variance in
predation, climate, food sources, and other factors have surely
occurred, yet, the birds have survived and thrived at times.
Our Response: We disagree that the red knot's ability to survive
past cycles of natural change--or even past anthropogenic threats like
hunting--are evidence that its adaptive capacity is adequate to survive
the threats it currently faces. First, population declines in the 2000s
demonstrate the red knot's vulnerability to inadequate food resources
and asynchronies. Second, the nature and extent of current threats are
unprecedented, as are the scope and rates of some changes that are
likely to occur over coming decades. For example, the extent of coastal
development and shoreline stabilization has likely never been greater,
rates of sea level rise continue to accelerate, and arctic ecosystems
are projected to change more in the next 100 years than they did over
the last 6,000 years, which is longer than the rufa red knot is thought
to have existed as a subspecies. We also disagree that the rufa red
knot has been in existence for millions of years. As discussed in the
proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 4), the rufa red
knot is thought to have diverged from other subspecies within the past
1,000 to 5,500 years. However, we agree that information is quite
limited regarding the adaptive capacity of the rufa red knot. Where we
have such information, we stated it in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024,
pp. 60028, 60035, 60047-60049, 60054, 60057, 60061, 60071, 60072,
60074, 60075, 60093, 60095).
(80) Comment: One commenter stated that there is no upward trend in
rufa red knot populations as measured by any consistently applied
methodology.
Our Response: As discussed in the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot
Ecology and Abundance, pp. 53-54), we generally concur with this
conclusion. One shorter-term data set (2007 to 2013) based on ground
counts in Virginia did show an upward trend through 2012 but was down
sharply in 2013, and a 2013 count from Brazil was markedly higher but
this was likely due, at least in part, to favorable tidal conditions
during the survey. However, two data sets associated with high
confidence (Tierra del Fuego, Delaware Bay) show stabilization at low
levels in recent years following sharp declines in the 2000s. Two other
data sets (South American and Virginia spring stopovers) suggest
declines in the 2000s relative to the 1990s. All other available data
sets are insufficient for trend analysis. Our conclusions regarding
trends in available population data are presented, with only minor
updates, in the Supplemental Document (Summary--Population Surveys and
Estimates).
(81) Comment: One commenter stated that the apparent red knot
decline is based on the inconsistent methodologies, geographic areas,
dates, and times of day, and compares multiple years' estimates against
a single day. Further, total rangewide population estimates reported by
some authors in certain years (e.g., 2004, 2005) have been lower than
counts at individual migration stopovers. Likewise, one commenter
stated that data are insufficient to draw credible conclusions about
the decline of this species.
Our Response: We disagree. We did not rely upon or cite the total
rangewide population estimates mentioned by the commenter. In the
proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 53), we
concluded that substantial declines occurred in two key red knot areas
in the 2000s: The Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego wintering area and the
Delaware Bay stopover area. We associated these trends with higher
confidence levels based on consistency of methods, coverage, and
observers (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 39, 48).
(82) Comment: Several commenters expressed concern with the
Service's apparent reliance on eBird data because it is citizen science
and not considered scientifically rigorous, is skewed towards
recreational birders and easily accessible locations, and is not
representative of all the places, known or unknown, red knots utilize.
The red knot population does not breed in colonies, which makes
gathering credible population data beyond the reach of recreational
birders. There are certain areas where red knot counts are made, mostly
where birdwatchers are. Many more red knots may be utilizing unknown
habitats and thus may be missed by surveys.
Our Response: First, we disagree that citizen science cannot be
scientifically rigorous. Specific to eBird, we have reviewed the
quality control protocols, which include vetting to minimize the risk
of mistaken bird identification. Second, we conclude that, for some
parts of the red knot's range (e.g., interior States) during some
seasons (e.g., migration), eBird data represent the best available
information. However, we agree that eBird data include reports from
recreational birdwatchers, which are likely skewed toward those times
and places that birdwatchers are active. The data are also temporally
skewed, with far more recent than historical records, likely due to the
growing access and popularity of recording observations electronically.
For these reasons, we have not interpreted eBird records as a complete
geographic representation of the range, nor have we relied upon these
data for trend analysis. We did consider eBird, along with other data,
for certain purposes relevant to listing, such as documentation or
seasonality of occurrence in a particular area. We note that eBird
records for Calidris canutus do not distinguish among subspecies; see
Our Response 35 and the Supplemental Document (Subspecies Nonbreeding
Distribution) regarding how we have delineated the nonbreeding ranges
of C.c. rufa versus C.c. roselaari based on best available data.
Third, we have relied on numerous data sets for our analysis of
population trends (see Population Surveys and
[[Page 73732]]
Estimates in the Supplemental Document). Long-term professional (as
opposed to volunteer) surveys have been conducted in several key areas
because these areas are known to support important concentrations of
red knots and other shorebirds, not based on convenient locations.
Sharp and protracted declines in two of these areas (Tierra del Fuego
and Delaware Bay) in the 2000s were an important consideration in our
listing determination, although declining numbers (rangewide or in
portions of the range) are not necessary for listing if a species is
facing population-level threats (see Our Responses 27 and 77). We agree
that the vast and remote breeding range of the rufa red knot, along
with its solitary nesting habits, largely preclude any comprehensive
surveys on the breeding grounds, either professional or volunteer.
Nonetheless, we conclude that credible population data can and are
collected in certain nonbreeding areas through consistent ground and
aerial counts and, more recently, have been calculated by mathematical
modelling based on resightings of marked birds.
Finally, we agree that not all red knot habitats are fully known,
and some portions of the range are difficult to access or accurately
survey. Although new information continues to emerge about such areas,
new information available since the proposed rule has not changed our
assessment of red knot population declines in Delaware Bay and Tierra
del Fuego in the 2000s, or our evaluation of threats facing this
species.
(83) Comment: One commenter stated that no controlled studies have
been done to compare current red knot populations to prior red knot
populations for the same area. In addition, the two areas (breeding and
wintering) where this species spends most of the year are remote and
not conducive to accurate population and biological studies.
Our Response: We disagree. While the size and remoteness of the
breeding grounds have generally precluded comprehensive surveys, red
knots typically spend only about 4 to 6 weeks per year in the Arctic.
The rest of the year the birds use migration and wintering habitats.
Repeated annual counts are available for several nonbreeding areas,
some of them remote. Some of these counts date back to the early 1980s
(see Population Surveys and Estimates in the Supplemental Document). In
addition, we have gathered best available historical data dating back
to the mid-1800s, as presented in the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot
Ecology and Abundance, pp. 33-36) and the Supplemental Document
(Historical Distribution and Abundance). Although these historical data
do not permit a quantitative analysis, they do convey a consistent
qualitative account of historical population trends.
(84) Comment: One commenter stated that the notion that Delaware
Bay is the only place used by rufa red knots omits Virginia's red knot
counts, which the commenter states represent 74 percent of the red knot
population in some years.
Our Response: We agree that Delaware Bay is not the only important
spring stopover area. However, due to the HSC egg resource, we conclude
that no single stopover area is more important for the red knot than
the Delaware Bay (Harrington 1996, p. 73). As discussed under Our
Response 38, we have analyzed more recent population data and conclude
that Delaware Bay continues to supports the majority of red knots each
spring. Notwithstanding the importance of Delaware Bay, the proposed
rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 17-23) and the
Supplemental Document (Migration) also present information about
numerous other stopover areas across the species' range, including
Virginia. We agree that Virginia is an important spring stopover site,
but disagree that it supports 74 percent of the total red knot
population. We do not have an estimate of the percent of the total rufa
red knot population that uses Virginia. However, by comparing late-May
peak counts from Virginia and Delaware Bay, we can estimate how the
total mid-Atlantic stopover population is typically distributed between
these two areas in spring. Across those years with available data
(1995, 1996, 2005 to 2014), average peak counts in Virginia were about
40 percent as large as those in Delaware Bay.
(85) Comment: Several commenters noted that annual counts of red
knots stopping at Delaware Bay dropped from around 95,000 in 1982 and
1989 to fewer than 15,000 in 2007, 2010, and 2011. Peak counts in 2009,
2012, and 2013 were higher, between 24,000 and 25,000.
Our Response: We agree that the size of the red knot population
stopping in Delaware Bay has declined substantially since the 1980s.
However, we note that 1982 and 1989 were the all-time high counts in
the bay and, therefore, not typical of annual peak counts recorded
during this time period. From 1981 to 1983, average peak counts were
59,946, and from 1986 to 1994, average peak counts were 46,886. (See
Our Response 37 regarding the extent of the decline.) We also agree
that, on average, counts since 2009 have increased somewhat, and we
conclude that the population has apparently stabilized at a relatively
low level (compared to baseline data from the 1980s), or slightly
increased over this period. The proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology
and Abundance, pp. 48-50) and Supplemental Document (Population Surveys
and Estimates--Spring Stopover Areas--Delaware Bay) present the best
available data regarding population trends in Delaware Bay.
(86) Comment: One commenter stated that data collection methods in
North Carolina are incomplete. Only birds sighted within Cape Hatteras
National Seashore are counted and not the birds on surrounding land or
the dredge islands in the sound.
Our Response: We agree that data collection in North Carolina is
incomplete, but we disagree that surveys occur only in Cape Hatteras
National Seashore. While Cape Hatteras staff only survey areas within
the National Seashore, additional areas are monitored by others. A
public comment letter from North Carolina Wildlife Resource Commission
(NCWRC 2013) summarized all red knot data that could be obtained in a
timely manner, and shows numbers of red knots along North Carolina's
coast, not only in the Cape Hatteras area. Survey efforts outside of
Cape Hatteras include aerial surveys of the North Carolina coast,
surveys at Cape Lookout National Seashore, surveys at shoals in the New
Drum Inlet area, contract shorebird surveys at beach nourishment
project areas, shorebird surveys at a storm-created inlet, and red knot
observations incidental to other surveys (NCWRC 2013). Although data
collection in North Carolina already goes well beyond the Cape Hatteras
area, additional survey improvements can be made to increase
understanding of the seasonal locations and numbers of red knots in the
State (S. Schweitzer pers. comm. June 29, 2014). We anticipate that a
holistic, rangewide review of data collection efforts and gaps will be
an important component of the recovery planning process.
(87) Comment: Several commenters noted information about red knots
along the Gulf Coast. One commenter stated that although several data
sets do exist to provide some red knot abundance data, rigorous surveys
that are typically used to detect long[hyphen]term species trends are
lacking for many parts of the Gulf coast. Other commenters provided new
data, including some anecdotal, regarding declines in the population of
red knots wintering on the Gulf of
[[Page 73733]]
Mexico from Florida to Texas. Likewise, one commenter stated that long-
term data show significant declines of rufa red knots across the Gulf
of Mexico.
Our Response: We agree that long-term data sets for the Gulf Coast
are lacking and anticipate that a holistic, rangewide review of data
collection efforts and gaps will be an important component of the
recovery planning process. However, we consider the existing and new
data received to be the best available data and have used it
appropriately to draw conclusions in the Supplemental Document
(Population Surveys and Estimates). Available information is quite
limited and localized for Louisiana and Texas, but suggest that
declines may have occurred (D. Newstead pers. comm. May 8, 2014;
Johnson 2013, p. 1). In eastern parts of the Gulf, any declines likely
reflect (at least in part) the shifting of some southeastern knots to
the Atlantic coast.
(88) Comment: One commenter stated that the red knot marked with
flag B95 has lived at least 20 years. Thus, red knots have a very slow
repopulation rate.
Our Response: We do not dispute the age of B95, but we disagree
with the conclusion the commenter derives from it. We agree red knot
reproductive rates are likely low, but note that little information is
available on this issue. First, B95 is the oldest known rufa red knot,
and thus believed to be not typical of the average life span. In the
proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 7), we stated
that few red knots live for more than about 7 years. We have revised
this section of the Supplemental Document (Longevity and Survival) with
new information about long-lived individuals, such as B95, that
suggests the typical life span may be somewhat longer than 7 years, but
20 years is still considered an outlier. Second, although long life
spans can be related to slow reproductive rates in some groups of
animals, we have little data to indicate typical reproductive rates in
rufa red knots. The Supplemental Document (Breeding Chronology and
Success) presents what little data we have regarding red knot
reproductive rates. Although there is much uncertainty around typical
reproductive rates, certainty is high that the red knot's reproductive
success varies widely among areas and years and is highly sensitive to
predation and weather, as discussed in the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot
Ecology and Abundance, pp. 11-12).
(89) Comment: Several commenters stated that the United States
serves only as a migration corridor twice a year. What little bit of
time the red knot spends in the eastern United States is a situation
that has not been fully studied.
Our Response: We disagree. First, red knots winter along parts of
the U.S. coast, mainly from North Carolina to Florida and from
Louisiana to Texas. Geolocator data show that red knots wintering in
the Southeast-Caribbean and in Texas spent about 60 and 78 percent of
their year, respectively, along the U.S. coasts (Newstead et al. 2013,
p. 55; Burger et al. 2012b, p. 1). Second, red knots would be unable to
complete their annual migrations without a network of high-quality
stopover sites at which to rest and gain weight, as discussed in the
proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 23) and the
Supplemental Document (Migration--Stopover Areas).
(90) Comment: One commenter stated that virtually the entire North
American population of red knots uses the shores of the Delaware Bay
during their migration in the spring. Likewise, another commenter
stated that the red knot in North Carolina is at the extremity of its
range because 90 percent of the entire population can be found in a
single day in Delaware Bay.
Our Response: We disagree. The range of the rufa red knot extends
from the central Canadian Arctic to the southern tip of South America.
We acknowledge that no single stopover area is more important for the
red knot than the Delaware Bay (Harrington 1996, p. 73). However, as
discussed in the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p.
29), Delaware Bay provides the final Atlantic coast stopover each
spring for the majority of the red knot population, but not the entire
population (see Our Response 38 above). The proposed rule (Rufa Red
Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 17-23) and the Supplemental Document
(Migration) present information about numerous other stopover areas
across the species' range. Specific to North Carolina, habitats in this
State support wintering red knots, and provide stopover during spring
and fall migration (see Population Surveys and Estimates in the
Supplemental Document). Some of the same birds that stop in Delaware
Bay also winter or stopover in North Carolina (BandedBirds.org 2012;
Niles et al. 2012a, entire), and new geolocator data from two juveniles
show these birds spent much of their first (nonbreeding) year (winter
and summer) in the Southeast between North Carolina and Georgia (S.
Koch, L. Niles, R. Porter, and F. Sanders pers. comm. August 8 and 12,
2014).
(91) Comment: One commenter provided new geolocator results that
several Texas-wintering knots followed a fall migration route along the
Atlantic coast, rather than exclusively through the interior of the
United States as stated in the proposed rule. While a midcontinental
migration is probably the most common strategy, there are exceptions
that are potentially important with respect to distinctness of the
population, and the caveat about the inherent bias in geolocator
studies should be given appropriate consideration. Further, high
interannual variability in migratory strategy is illustrated by one
individual red knot for which the commenter has 3 full years of
migration data. Though some sites were used in multiple years, the
actual routes and number of sites varied considerably among years.
Our Response: We thank the commenter, and have added this new
information to the Supplemental Document (Migration--Midcontinent). We
have also eliminated the referenced statement from the proposed rule,
which we agree was an oversimplification, and we have noted the caveat
about the inherent bias in geolocator studies (Research Methods). We
referenced the new data about the migration of Texas-wintering knots
along the Atlantic coast in Our Response 31.
(92) Comment: One commenter stated that red knots have not
declined, but have instead changed their migratory path and habitat
use. Red knots seem to be in smaller groups in many remote places in
both North and South America.
Our Response: We agree there is evidence of changes in the use of
particular migration stopover areas, both historically (Cohen et al.
2008) and more recently (Harrington et al. (2010a, pp. 188, 190). We
also agree that many additional rufa red knot wintering and stopover
areas have been documented in recent decades, some supporting
relatively small numbers of birds. However, we attribute these recent
findings to increased survey efforts, rather than a shift in migration
strategy toward smaller and more widely distributed nonbreeding areas.
In fact, there is evidence that, as numbers declined in the 2000s, red
knot populations wintering in Argentina and Chile actually become more
concentrated, contracting to the core sites on Tierra del Fuego and
leaving few birds at the ``peripheral'' Patagonian sites (Committee on
the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) 2007, p. 11).
Further, we disagree that any such distributional
[[Page 73734]]
changes can explain the observed declines in the 2000s in Delaware Bay
in spring, and in Argentina and Chile in winter. We have revised the
Supplemental Document (Population Surveys and Estimates--Spring
Stopover Areas--Delaware Bay) to clarify that, although we cannot rule
out the possibility that some or all of the decline in Delaware Bay
could have been caused by birds switching to other U.S. Atlantic
stopover areas, we consider this unlikely based on surveys from
Virginia, and on similarities in the magnitude and timing of the
declines in Delaware Bay relative to Tierra del Fuego and several South
American stopover sites.
(93) Comment: Several commenters stated that the longest distance
migrants (i.e., those red knots that winter in Tierra del Fuego) are
entirely reliant on HSC eggs since the extreme physiological changes
that they undergo for migration, including to their digestive systems,
restrict their diet to soft prey at stopover sites. While knots from
the southeast U.S. wintering areas may still be able to consume small
bivalves, the Tierra del Fuego birds cannot.
Our Response: We disagree with the conclusion that red knots from
Tierra del Fuego cannot digest bivalves during spring migration. We do
recognize that red knots from the Tierra del Fuego wintering area may
be more reliant on HSC eggs than other migrating red knots during the
spring stopover in Delaware Bay, as we discussed in the proposed rule
(Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, pp. 31-33). However, this section
of the proposed rule also discussed data from Virginia and the Atlantic
coast of New Jersey, where knots from Tierra del Fuego are known to
feed on small bivalves (P. Atkinson pers. comm. November 8, 2012; Smith
et al. 2008, p. 16). The Supplemental Document (Wintering and Migration
Food--Possible Differential Reliance on Horseshoe Crab Eggs) has been
revised to more clearly present these data; see Our Response 54.
(94) Comment: One commenter stated that recent studies from Dr.
Allan Baker at the Royal Ontario Museum in Canada show genetic
differences between the rufa population that winters in Florida, the
population that winters along the northern coast of Brazil, and the
longest distance migrant population that winters in Chile and
Argentina. This commenter cites conclusions from Buehler and Piersma
(2008) that Argentina-Chile populations are more vulnerable to energy,
nutritional, timing, and immune ``bottlenecks'' with potential fitness
consequences than the shorter-distance migrant populations of red
knots. The commenter believes the red knot is only one species with
several populations, but shows that what happens on the tip of one
continent can have effects across the flyway.
Our Response: We are aware of this study by Dr. Baker investigating
possible genetic differences between red knots by wintering area, but
we do not have permission to cite his preliminary results, which have
not yet been published. Therefore, we do not consider it to be
``available,'' and thus, we may not consider its findings in our
listing determination. We have reviewed Buehler and Piersma (2008) and
conclude that both shorter- and longer-distance migrants face tradeoffs
among the various ``bottlenecks'' they face throughout their annual
cycles. However, we have also revised the Supplemental Document
(Wintering--Northern Versus Southern; Migration--Differences in
Migration Strategy by Wintering Region) to discuss more fully the
observed differences between northern- and southern-wintering knots,
including evidence of greater vulnerability of the southern-wintering
group (the longest-distance migrants) to food supplies and arrival
times in Delaware Bay. Based on the best available data, we agree that
the rufa red knot represents one subspecies with several wintering
populations. We also agree that substantial threats anywhere along the
flyway can potentially result in population-level effects.
(95) Comment: One commenter stated that, while Calidris canutus is
somewhat unique among shorebirds as being a specialized molluscivore
during much of its annual cycle, consumption of prey aside from
mollusks in nonbreeding areas is well-documented, especially during
prolonged migratory stopovers (e.g., C.c. rufa and HSC eggs in Delaware
Bay and C.c. roselaari and Pacific grunion eggs in the Gulf of
California). The documented red knot stopovers in the Northern Great
Plains and the seasonal emergence of insect populations in the Central
Flyway, various invertebrates on riverine sandbars, and brine shrimp in
the saline lakes of Saskatchewan may be an ecological correlate to HSC
eggs in the Atlantic flyway.
Our Response: Because we find these ideas plausible, based on our
knowledge of red knot biology, and worthy of further investigation
during forthcoming recovery efforts, we have mentioned them in the
Supplemental Document (Migration and Wintering Food--Inland). However,
we note that these ideas currently lack supporting documentation and
did not rely on this information for our analyses.
(96) Comment: One commenter stated that, in 2012, only 55 percent
of red knots studied in New Jersey reached the departure weight
necessary to ensure their chance to breed in the Arctic. The remaining
birds likely fail to survive the journey or reproduce, which results in
serious population declines.
Our Response: The proportion of red knots attaining the target
departure weight in Delaware Bay should not be confused with the annual
survival rate. Amanda Dey (pers. comm. October 12, 2012) reported that
54 percent of red knots in Delaware Bay reached the target weight by
the end of May 2012. Although this metric fell to 46 percent in 2013,
these 2 years continued an overall upward trend in the percentage of
birds reaching the target departure weight since the mid-2000s (Dey et
al. 2014, pp. 1, 4), and remained relatively high for a third
consecutive year in 2014 (A. Dey pers. comm. July 23, 2014). Further,
although we agree that adequate weight gain in Delaware Bay is vital to
red knot conservation, we disagree that most birds under the target
weight fail to survive the subsequent year (i.e., most low-weight birds
do not die). Using data from 1997 to 2008, McGowan et al. (2011a, p.
13) confirmed that heavy birds had a higher average survival
probability than light birds, but the difference was small (0.918
versus 0.915), as discussed in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60069). These survival rates, averaged over the period 1997 to 2008,
could mask more pronounced effects of low departure weights on survival
over shorter periods. For example, the lowest survival estimates
occurred in 1998, just before the period of sharpest declines in red
knot counts (McGowan et al. 2011a, p. 13). The 1998 to 1999 survival
rate estimate was 0.851 for heavy birds and 0.832 for light birds
(McGowan et al. 2011a, p. 9). Based on best available information, we
agree that low departure weights (caused by insufficient food supplies
and late arrivals) were a primary causal factor in the decline of the
rufa subspecies in the 2000s.
(97) Comment: One commenter stated that, for the most part, the
barrier islands along the Atlantic coast are in public ownership, not
private, and are not frequently used for development.
Our Response: We disagree. Land ownership varies widely along the
U.S. Atlantic coast. Past and ongoing coastal development in some areas
is extensive (78 FR 60024, pp. 60038-60043).
(98) Comment: Several commenters expressed concern over how the
Service
[[Page 73735]]
characterized threats to the red knot stemming from climate change and
how that same climate information could be applied to other species.
One commenter acknowledged that effects to the red knot from climate
change could be significant in the future, but noted they are not
currently. Other commenters stated that the proposed rule does not cite
scientific data or information linking red knot population declines
with any climate-related effects, nor does the proposed rule present a
detailed analysis of how or whether climate-related impacts will result
in either reductions in fitness to the red knot species or future
population declines, nor are there models showing the expected effects
of climate change on rufa red knot abundance. The proposed rule
acknowledged that the effects of climate change on the rufa red knot
are unknown, uncertain, and speculative. Further, the proposed rule
purports to forecast the effects of a complex global issue (climate
change) up to 100 years into the future. This approach requires the
Service to rely upon controversial modeling projections of complex data
to forecast a future that is well beyond our reasonable ability to
predict, and to imagine what the speculative biological consequences of
these forecasts will be for the rufa red knot. This is an exercise in
speculation, not an analysis based on existing scientific evidence, and
if used as such then virtually every species may be considered
threatened and this establishes a precedent that renders the Act's
listing process unworkable. These same commenters stated that many of
the threats identified by the proposal (e.g., sea level rise and other
effects of climate change) are by no means unique to the rufa red knot
and may, therefore, be an unreasonable basis for listing since so many
other species would be likewise affected.
Our Response: We disagree with these conclusions. Based on our
review of best available information, we conclude that threats to the
red knot, including those stemming from climate change, are likely to
place this species in danger of extinction in the next few decades (see
Our Response 66 regarding ``foreseeable future''). Not all threats
contributing to a species' threatened or endangered status must be tied
to past or ongoing population declines, if future declines are likely
(see Our Responses 27 and 77). While we continue to conclude that
reduced food availability and late arrivals at the Delaware Bay
stopover site were the primary causal factors in the decline of rufa
red knot populations in the 2000s (78 FR 60024, pp. 60063, 60076),
climate-induced environmental changes likely to affect the red knot are
already occurring and likely to intensify. We have updated the
Supplemental Document (Overview of Threats Related to Climate Change)
with information from recent assessments of the red knot's
vulnerability to climate change indicating a large increase in
extinction risk (Galbraith et al. 2014, p. 7; National Wildlife
Federation 2013, p. 28; Whitman et al. 2013, pp. 2, 19, 64).
We disagree that this listing determination relies upon
``controversial modeling projections of complex data to forecast a
future that is well beyond our reasonable ability to predict.''
Instead, we relied upon mainstream and thoroughly vetted climate
science publications (e.g., from the IPCC, the U.S. Global Change
Research Program, the National Research Council, and the Arctic Climate
Impact Assessment) that present scientifically based ranges of likely
future climate conditions under various emissions scenarios. The IPCC
(2013b) defines a scenario as a coherent, internally consistent, and
plausible description of a possible future state of the world; it is
not a forecast; rather, each scenario is one alternative image of how
the future can unfold. Various levels of uncertainty are associated
with all scientific data and with all analyses of future conditions.
The uncertainty levels associated with different aspects of climate
change have been standardized by the IPCC (see Supplemental Document
table 14). We used this standardized terminology transparently and
consistently in the proposed rule (Climate Change Background, p. 2) and
in the Supplemental Document (Climate Change--Background). The key
findings of climate science--that human-caused climate change is
occurring and will continue to affect temperatures, precipitation
patterns, sea levels, and ocean pH levels--continue to be associated
with high levels of certainty (Melillo et al. 2014, pp. 20-49; IPCC
2013a, p. 7).
We also disagree that the effects of climate change on the rufa red
knot are ``unknown, uncertain, and speculative'' and that the proposed
rule does not present a detailed analysis as to ``how or whether
climate-related impacts will result in either reductions in fitness to
the red knot or future population declines.'' Throughout the proposed
rule (and summarized at 78 FR 60024, pp. 60028-20029), we presented
detailed analyses of best available data (and associated levels of
uncertainty, when available) regarding how red knot habitats and
populations are likely to respond to climate changes over the coming
decades. While biological modeling showing the expected effects of
climate change on rufa red knot abundance may be helpful in future
recovery efforts, such models are not currently available and research
to generate them is not required for the Service to make a listing
determination under the Act's ``best available'' data standard. We
acknowledge that climate change is a complex global issue and that
uncertainties exist. However, the best available science indicates
climate change is expected to affect red knot fitness and, therefore,
survival through direct and indirect effects on breeding and
nonbreeding habitat, food availability, and timing of the birds' annual
cycle. Ecosystem changes in the arctic (e.g., changes in predation
patterns and pressures) may also reduce reproductive output. Together,
these anticipated changes will likely negatively influence the long-
term survival of the rufa red knot.
Finally, we disagree that virtually every species may be considered
for listing due to the effects of climate change, or that climate-
related threats are equally applicable to all species within the
coastal zone. The Act requires the Service to evaluate each species of
concern or petitioned species individually to assess whether listing as
threatened or endangered is warranted. Not all species will be affected
by the effects of climate change in the same manner; each species'
biological traits and population dynamics will make it more or less
resilient to any stressor. That said, it is likely that additional
species will be found to meet the definition of a threatened or
endangered species based on threats stemming from climate change as its
effects intensify in the future.
(99) Comment: One commenter stated that climate change has affected
the red knot because wintering zones have moved farther up in South
America than in the past.
Our Response: We agree that climate change effects are a primary
threat to the red knot, but disagree that such effects have caused a
range shift to date. Although we anticipate that changing climatic
conditions will likely cause latitudinal shifts in the position of some
red knot habitats, we expect such habitat shifts will primarily affect
the red knot within its breeding range (78 FR 60024, pp. 60047-60049),
because the nonbreeding range already spans the entire latitudinal
gradient from Tierra del Fuego to southern Canada. We have no evidence
that red knots have shifted their winter ranges in response to climate
change. We do note that the
[[Page 73736]]
Argentina-Chile wintering area has contracted by about 1,000 mi (1,600
km) poleward (south), which is the direction that would be consistent
with the effects of climate change (Root et al. 2003, p. 57). However,
we conclude that this contraction was not primarily caused by climate
change, but instead a result of an overall decreasing winter population
size in this region (COSEWIC 2007, p. 11). Population declines are
often accompanied by abandonment of ``peripheral'' habitats and a
geographic contraction into only the best (``core'') habitats. A
similar phenomenon was noted for HSCs within Delaware Bay (Lathrop
2005, p. 4).
(100) Comment: One commenter stated that Congress did not intend
for the Act to be used to regulate greenhouse emissions or climate
change. This commenter is concerned that a final listing rule may be
misused or impose undue burdens on American industries or activities,
particularly those that have greenhouse gas emissions. Another
commenter stated that the Service has previously recognized there is
insufficient evidence to establish a causal connection between
greenhouse emissions from particular activities and impacts to certain
species.
Our Response: As stated in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60097), a determination to list the rufa red knot as a threatened
species under the Act will not regulate greenhouse gas emissions.
Rather, it will reflect a determination that the rufa red knot meets
the definition of a threatened species, thereby establishing certain
protections for it under the Act.
(101) Comment: One commenter stated that no field data have been
gathered or analyzed to compare the status of red knot populations that
are isolated from human activity to those that are exposed to human
activity.
Our Response: We disagree that field data are not available
regarding the effects of disturbance. In the proposed rule (78 FR
60024, pp. 60076-60079), we presented several studies that include
field data on the effects of human disturbance on red knots and other
shorebirds. We are not aware of any comparative studies of red knot
population trends in high-disturbance versus low-disturbance areas, but
conclude that such studies would be confounded by the migratory
connectivity of red knot sites (i.e., factors affecting survival in any
part of the range may affect populations rangewide), and by other site-
specific factors (e.g., habitat quality, food availability, predation
rates) influencing local or regional population trends.
(102) Comment: Several commenters stated that anecdotal data from
long-term barrier island residents suggest that red knots feed and
carry on unaffected by the presence of some human activity (e.g., surf
fishing) and that operation of offroad vehicles (ORVs) driving within
10 yards of a cluster of red knots that are feeding does not cause them
to be disturbed or fly. Further, drivers of ORVs do not drive in the
same part of the beach used by red knots for feeding, and if there is
any reaction, the flock goes up while the vehicle goes by only to land
again either in the same spot or a little farther away. Thus, the birds
are not being harassed to the point their life cycle is being
threatened. These commenters also contend that cannon netting by
researchers causes a higher degree of disturbance than these
recreational activities.
Our Response: We disagree that red knots are unaffected by human
activity. We agree that red knots may have a minimal response to low
levels of disturbance, and that reaction distances and durations likely
vary with the type and intensity of the disturbance, as well among
sites and among seasons. We also agree that no one particular
disturbance event is likely to impact a red knot's fitness or survival.
However, the cumulative effects of repeated or prolonged disturbance
have been shown to preclude shorebird use of otherwise preferred
habitats and can impact the birds' energy budgets (i.e., their ability
to gain and maintain adequate weight) (78 FR 60024, p. 60079). We
disagree that ORV drivers always remain out of the wet sand of the
intertidal zone where red knots feed. On some beaches, driving on the
dry beach is restricted to prevent damage to dunes and wrack, and in
some areas drivers avoid the dry sand to prevent getting stuck. Even
where driving is restricted to the dry beach, ORV use may disturb
roosting, instead of foraging, red knots.
We agree that certain research methods are highly disturbing to red
knots. Therefore, we anticipate that any recovery permits issued under
the Act will include conditions to strictly limit the extent and
duration of disturbance to red knots from research activities, typical
of the best practices that are already generally followed by the
research community.
(103) Comment: Several commenters stated that the Delaware Bay-wide
HSC egg densities show no upward trend. Another commenter stated that
the decline in HSC egg density on New Jersey's Delaware Bay beaches as
described in the 2007 status assessment is deceptive, there are no data
supporting a problem of egg availability for the red knots on the
Delaware Bay beaches, and the Delaware Bay egg density data and studies
should not be used for management or listing of red knots.
Our Response: We concur that the Delaware Bay-wide HSC egg
densities show no upward trend, but note that we have only moderate
confidence in this data set. We recognize the importance of surface egg
availability to red knots in Delaware Bay, and egg densities have been
statistically correlated with red knot weight gain (Dey et al. 2013,
pp. 18-19; H. Sitters pers. comm. April 26, 2013). However,
methodological concerns with the egg density surveys are described in
the proposed rule and in the Supplemental Document, and limit our
confidence in this data set. The ASMFC recently dropped the requirement
for the States of New Jersey and Delaware to conduct the egg density
surveys, largely because these data are not used in the ARM framework;
however, New Jersey plans to continue the survey on its side of
Delaware Bay (M. Hawk pers. comm. April 8, 2014; ASMFC 2013e, p. 4).
We did rely partly, but not solely, on the egg density analysis as
presented in the 2007 status assessment (which was later updated and
published independent of the Service as Niles et al. 2008). Based on
our own analysis of the egg density data (78 FR 60024, pp. 60067-60068
and Supplemental Document section Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--
Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link B, Part 2), and considering several
different data sources, we regarded trends in egg density data as a
secondary line of supporting evidence that insufficiency of food
resources was an important factor (along with late arrivals)
contributing to the decline of the Delaware Bay stopover population.
Thus, Delaware Bay egg density data were a relatively minor
consideration in our determination of the threatened status of the red
knot. Despite the lack of upward trends in baywide egg densities, our
assessment of the best available data from several lines of evidence
concludes that the volume of HSC eggs is currently sufficient to
support the Delaware Bay's stopover population of red knots at its
present size. However, because of the uncertain trajectory of HSC
population growth, it is not yet known if the egg resource will
continue to adequately support red knot population growth over the next
decade. This conclusion is unchanged from the proposed rule (78 FR
60024, p. 60063).
(104) Comment: One commenter stated that the number of HSC eggs on
Delaware Bay shores dropped from
[[Page 73737]]
40,000 eggs per square meter (m\2\) in the 1990s to only 1,500 eggs per
m\2\ in 2005.
Our Response: In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60067-60068),
we discussed methodological concerns with the HSC egg density data,
particularly prior to 2005. We attached somewhat higher confidence to
trends since 2005 because methodologies have been more consistent over
that period--there was no significant trend in baywide egg densities
from 2005 to 2012. However, the Delaware Bay egg density data were a
relatively minor consideration in our determination of the threatened
status of the red knot, and are not used in management of the HSC
fishery under the ARM (see Our Response 103 above).
(105) Comment: One commenter stated that the early (1981 through
2000) declines in red knot counts in Delaware Bay were not reflected in
the Argentina-Chile wintering area, which contradicts the assertion
that later (after 2000) declines in this wintering area were caused by
inadequate weight gains in Delaware Bay. Conversely, another commenter
stated that, with fewer eggs to feed on, up to 75 percent of red knots
surveyed on the Delaware Bay suffered a year-on-year decline in their
rate of weight gain between 1990 and 2006. Further, lower weight birds
have been shown to have lower survival rates, and scientific models
predicted that the red knot may become extinct by 2010.
Our Response: We agree there may have been declines in the Delaware
Bay's red knot stopover population prior to 2001, but we also note
considerable variability in the peak count data set that makes it
difficult to detect trends. In contrast, the decline in peak counts in
the 2000s was sufficiently pronounced and sustained that we have
confidence in the downward trend over this time period despite the
variability of the data set. We agree that a number of data sets have
been used to draw conclusions about the correlation between HSC harvest
and red knot population trends. Not all of the data sets agree
completely, suggesting that other factors likely contributed to the red
knot decline (e.g., late arrivals in Delaware Bay, other threats
discussed in the proposed rule). Keeping in mind the limitations of the
various data sets and the biology of HSCs and red knots and looking at
the general trends, we find a temporal correlation between high harvest
levels leading up to the year 2000, and a relatively sudden decline in
the red knot Argentina-Chile wintering population around that same time
period, concurrent with a pronounced decline in Delaware Bay. Moving
from correlation to causation, our conclusion is based on a detailed
analysis (78 FR 60024, pp. 60063-60071 and Supplemental Document
section Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest):
Although the causal chain from HSC harvest to red knot populations has
several links associated with various levels of uncertainty, the weight
of evidence supports these linkages, points to past harvest as a key
factor in the decline of the red knot, and underscores the importance
of continued HSC management to meet the needs of the red knot.
In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60069), we discussed trends
in red knot weight gain, relying mainly on the percentage of red knots
greater than the target weight at the end of May. This metric for
weight gain showed a downward trend in the percentage of heavy birds
starting in 1997, which started to reverse by the late 2000s. In the
proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60069-60079), we also evaluated the
best available data regarding the link between red knot spring weight
gain in Delaware Bay and the birds' subsequent survival. In this
analysis, we relied primarily on Baker et al. (2004) and McGowan et al.
(2011a), both of which found a link between spring weight gain in
Delaware Bay and survival. We acknowledge the following statement by
Baker et al. (2004, p. 879), ``if the 1997/1998 to 2000/2001 levels of
annual survival prevail, the population is predicted to approach
extremely low numbers by 2010 when the probability of extinction will
be correspondingly higher than it is today.'' However, we did not
evaluate this statement in the proposed rule because the newer results
of McGowan et al. (2011a) indicate those earlier (and lower) survival
rates were no longer prevailing.
(106) Comment: One commenter suggested that other threats such as
disease and research activities may have been responsible for red knot
and HSCs declines, rather than overharvesting of HSCs. Conversely,
another commenter believes gross mismanagement of the HSC fishery has
dramatically decreased the availability of HSC eggs for the red knot
and other migratory shorebirds.
Our Response: As discussed in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60063), we completed a detailed analysis of all three threats (disease,
research, HSC harvest) and recognize the effect that formerly excessive
harvesting of HSCs had on the red knot's food resources and the
contribution this activity had to the knot's population decline. See
Our Responses 45 and 46 regarding egg availability and the ASMFC's
regulation of the HSC fishery, respectively.
(107) Comment: Several commenters suggested that supplemental
feeding of red knots in Delaware Bay may be needed until HSC
populations return to levels that provide adequate egg supplies for the
birds.
Our Response: As noted in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60063), most data suggest that the volume of HSC eggs is currently
sufficient to support the Delaware Bay's stopover population of red
knots at its present size. However, ensuring the future HSC egg supply
will be addressed during the recovery planning process, and we intend
to continue our active role in the ASMFC's management of the HSC
fishery. We acknowledge considerable uncertainty around the future food
supplies for red knots, in Delaware Bay and in nonbreeding habitats
rangewide. We would not rule out direct human intervention (e.g.,
supplemental feeding) as an appropriate conservation response if food
supplies in any part of the range should someday become so depleted as
to present an imminent, population-level threat. However, we would
consider such a step only as a last resort because it fails to fulfill
a central purpose of the Act, ``to provide a means whereby the
ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend
may be conserved.'' Although supplemental feeding of wild birds is not
the same as controlled propagation, it has similar conservation
implications (e.g., direct human intervention as opposed to the
conservation of the supporting ecosystem). Thus, we feel this excerpt
from the Policy Regarding Controlled Propagation of Species Listed
Under the Endangered Species Act (65 FR 5690) would also apply to
supplemental feeding: ``Controlled propagation is not a substitute for
addressing factors responsible for an endangered or threatened species'
decline. Therefore, our first priority is to recover wild populations
in their natural habitat wherever possible, without resorting to the
use of controlled propagation.''
(108) Comment: One commenter stated that since the ARM framework
establishes a conservative HSC harvest level for the Delaware Bay
spawning population of HSCs, significant threats are more likely to
occur at other points along the migratory flyways.
Our Response: We agree that, as long as the ARM is in place and
functioning as intended, the ongoing HSC bait harvest should not be a
threat to the red knot (see Our Responses 46 and 48). We also agree
that a number of other threats throughout the knot's range are
contributing to habitat loss, anthropogenic mortality, or both, and
[[Page 73738]]
that these threats are likely to increase in the future. Thus, new
attention to these emerging threats will be imperative for red knot
recovery. However, we also conclude that a sustained focus on
protecting the red knot's food supply--in Delaware Bay and throughout
the range--will also be vital to red knot recovery (see Our Responses
45, 78, and 126).
(109) Comment: One commenter stated that the HSC population in
Delaware Bay has fluctuated between 1.5 and 2 million since 2007.
Several commenters stated that there have been no increases in the
number of female HSCs, or of total crabs, spawning in Delaware Bay.
Our Response 109: We disagree that the HSC population in Delaware
Bay has fluctuated between 1.5 and 2 million. This estimate of 1.5 to 2
million crabs is for spawning adults, and is not the same as the size
of the total baywide HSC population. As indicated in the proposed rule
(78 FR 60024, p. 60065), Smith et al. (2006, p. 461) estimated the
population of HSCs in the Delaware Bay Region in 2003 at about 20
million adults, based on modeling of marked HSCs. We have updated the
Supplemental Document (Factor E--Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab
Harvest--Link A, Part 1) with newer estimates from Smith (2013), based
on a different methodology but showing similar results. Smith (2013, p.
2) reported annual estimates of the baywide population size from 2002
to 2012, with an average over this period of about 19 million and
consistently more males than females.
Specific to spawning crab counts, Swan et al. reported season-long
total counts of roughly 1.3 to 2 million spawning adults along the
Delaware Bay shoreline from 2007 to 2012 (Swan et al. 2012, p. 1; Swan
et al. 2011, p. 1; Swan et al. 2010, p. 1; Swan et al. 2009, p. 1; Swan
et al. 2008, p. 1; Swan et al. 2007, p. 1). We reviewed but, for
methodological reasons, did not rely on this data set from Swan et al.
(2007 to 2012) to evaluate trends in numbers of spawning adult crabs.
Instead, we have relied on spawning HSC density reports prepared for
the ASMFC. We agree there have been no increases in the number of
female HSCs spawning in Delaware Bay. The most recent report of the
density data concluded that baywide spawning activity shows no
statistically significant trends from 1999 through 2012 (Zimmerman et
al. 2013; p. 1). This is a change from Zimmerman et al. (2012, pp. 1-
2), which reported that, although there was no trend in females,
numbers of spawning males showed a statistically significant increase
from 1999 through 2011. This new information has been incorporated into
the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--
Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link B, Part 1). See Our Response 46 for more
discussion of female HSC population trends.
(110) Comment: One commenter stated that, due to the bait harvest,
the Delaware Bay population of HSCs declined by 90 percent between 1990
and 2006.
Our Response: We disagree that the percent decline for the HSC
population in the Delaware Bay Region can be determined over this time
period, because there are no estimates of the size of this population
prior to 2003 (done by Smith et al. 2006). As no population size
estimates are available prior to the 1990s increase in harvest levels,
we rely on the ASMFC's periodic stock assessments to appropriately
weigh and statistically analyze available data sets to draw conclusions
regarding HSC population trends, as discussed in the proposed rule (78
FR 60024, p. 60066) and the Supplemental Document (Factor E-- Reduced
Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A, Part 2); see Our
Response 46.
(111) Comment: One commenter stated that females are the limiting
sex within the HSC population and have a direct ecological link to
migratory shorebirds through their eggs. Under the ARM, female HSCs in
the Delaware Bay region are fully protected for the benefit of
migratory shorebirds. The ARM does not authorize the harvest of females
until the HSC population reaches 80 percent of its carrying capacity,
which is well beyond the realm of traditional fishery management
parameters, reflecting the ecological importance of the resource, and
the risk-averse characteristics of the current management plan. The ARM
model builds upon a male-only or male-biased regulatory strategy for
Delaware Bay HSCs that was adopted by the ASMFC in 2006. The biological
and ecological basis for the male-only harvest is based on the best
available science for the species; males are not limiting within the
HSC population dynamics, and are not ecologically limiting with respect
to HSC egg availability for shorebirds. Well before the adoption of the
male-only harvest strategy in 2006 and the ARM implementation in 2012,
the ASMFC had already reduced the coastwide harvest of HSCs by
approximately 70 percent from reference period landings, through a
series of increasingly restrictive addenda. The HSC quotas in the
Delaware Bay region have been specified by the ASMFC at very low rates
of removal that are fully consistent with both population growth and
ecological sustainability. The 2009 HSC stock assessment indicated the
fishing mortality rates for HSCs in the Delaware Bay region were
consistent with population growth.
Our Response: We agree with this assessment of the importance of
female HSCs. We agree that the strongly male-biased fishery management
was appropriate prior to adoption of the ARM, and a male-only harvest
continues to be warranted based on the current ARM outputs. We conclude
that the ARM provides adequate protection for females from the bait
harvest, but we note that some female mortality does occur as a result
of the biomedical harvest. Other commenters noted that positive trends
in female HSC populations are absent, even after 7 years of male-only
harvest, possibly suggesting losses of female crabs from unregulated or
undocumented sources including biomedical mortality. We discuss this
and other possible explanations for the lack of growth in measures of
female abundance under Our Responses 46 and 49. In the proposed rule
(78 FR 60024, pp. 60064-60065), we noted the shift to a strongly male-
biased harvest, and the successive harvest restrictions that reduced
reported landings from 1998 to 2011 by over 75 percent. We also
discussed the findings of the 2009 stock assessment (78 FR 60024, pp.
60064-60065). The Supplemental Document (Factor E-- Reduced Food
Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A, Part 2) has been updated
to include the results of the 2013 stock assessment update.
(112) Comment: One commenter stated that the 2009 HSC stock
assessment indicated the mortality rates were approximately 70 to 75
percent below the fishing mortality rate associated with maximum
sustainable yield (FMSY). Even without the benefit of the subsequent
ARM model, these removal rates were already well below conservative
levels for important forage species. The 2012 Lenfest report included a
comprehensive examination of marine ecosystems and concluded that
fishing at half of traditional FMSY values results in a low probability
of collapse for forage fish and lower risk for dependent species. The
quotas set by the ASMFC under addenda IV, V, and VI were already well
below these guidelines, and were specifically male-biased to ensure the
ecological sustainability of the fishery.
Our Response: We agree that the 2009 stock assessment reflects
substantial reductions in harvest levels, from their peak at 2 to 3
times FMSY in 1998 and 1999 to 23.2 percent of FMSY (both
[[Page 73739]]
sexes combined) in 2008 (ASMFC 2009a, pp. 25, 57). However, we disagree
that the findings of the 2012 Lenfest report can be extrapolated to
HSCs (e.g, to suggest a harvest level relative to FMSY that is adequate
for dependent species such as red knot and other shorebirds). The
authors of the Lenfest report (Pikitch et al. 2012, p. 4) defined
forage fish characteristics, some of which are not shared by HSCs
(e.g., provide energy flow from plankton to higher trophic levels,
relatively small body size, fast growth, early maturity). Instead, we
rely on the ARM to establish conservative harvest limits that ensure an
adequate supply of HSC eggs to support red knots in Delaware Bay.
(113) Comment: One commenter stated that under addenda IV, V, and
VI to the ASMFC's fishery management plan, HSC harvests in Delaware and
New Jersey were limited, by quota, to 100,000 male HSCs annually per
State. New Jersey's legislature closed its HSC fishery. If both States
utilized their quotas at that time, total harvest would have been less
than 2 percent of the adult male HSC population, which was estimated at
12 million.
Our Response: We agree with this estimate of the percentage of the
male population annually authorized for harvest under these addenda. In
the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60065), we noted that recent annual
harvests of roughly 200,000 HSCs from the Delaware Bay Region (which
reflects New Jersey's moratorium as well as harvest from the other
three States in the Region) represent about 1 percent of the total
adult (male and female) population. Our estimate of 1 percent is
unchanged in the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Food Availability--
Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A, Part 1) even upon updating the landings
and estimated population size with new data.
(114) Comment: One commenter stated that the analysis of HSC
tagging data by the ASFMC's Technical Committee has suggested that
approximately 13 percent of Maryland's catch of HSCs and approximately
9 percent of Virginia's catch, east of the COLREGS line (which delimits
internal from ocean waters), are of Delaware Bay origin. A line of
genetic evidence suggested that 51 percent of Maryland's catch and 35
percent of Virginia's catch, east of the [International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea] COLREGS line, is of Delaware Bay origin.
When the ASMFC implemented the ARM model in 2012, it required all of
Maryland's catch and all of Virginia's catch east of the COLREGS line
to be male-only, as a precautionary measure, to ensure the ecological
sustainability of these fisheries in waters adjacent to the Delaware
Bay Region.
Our Response: In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60070), we
concluded that the ASMFC's current delineation of the Delaware Bay
Region HSC population is based on best available information and is
appropriate for use in the ARM modeling, but we acknowledged some
uncertainty regarding the population structure and distribution of
Delaware Bay HSCs. In documenting the technical underpinnings of the
ARM, the ASMFC (2009b, p. 7) acknowledged that the proportion of
Maryland and Virginia landings that come from Delaware Bay is currently
unresolved, but stated that their approach to estimating this
proportion was conservative. We have revised the Supplemental Document
(Factor E--Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Adaptive Resource
Management) to state that we anticipate the ARM process will adapt to
substantive new information that reduces uncertainty about the Delaware
Bay HSC population structure and geographic distribution. See Our
Response 49.
(115) Comment: One commenter stated that table 9 (reported Atlantic
coast landings) in the proposed rule does not describe the conversion
between pounds and numbers of HSC harvested; thus reviewers cannot
provide meaningful comment on the data.
Our Response: As explained in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60064), the HSC landings data given in pounds come from the National
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), but should be viewed with caution as
these records are often incomplete and represent an underestimate of
actual harvest (ASMFC 1998, p. 6). In addition, reporting has increased
over the years, and the conversion factors used to convert crab numbers
to pounds have varied widely (ASMFC 2009a, p. 2), thus we are unable to
convert the pounds to numbers of crabs. (For this same reason, the
ASFMC also retains these data in pounds in its stock assessments.)
Despite these inaccuracies, the reported landings show that commercial
harvest of HSCs increased substantially from 1990 to 1998 and has
generally declined since then (ASMFC 2013b, p. 8; ASMFC 2009a, p. 2).
The ASMFC (1998, p. 6) also considered other data sources to
corroborate a significant increase in harvest in the 1990s. Despite the
known problems with this data set, no other data are available
regarding harvest levels prior to 1998; thus, we have considered these
data only to document the very sharp increase in harvest levels that
occurred in the mid-1990s. The ASMFC relies on these data for the same
purpose in its periodic stock assessments (ASMFC 2013b; ASMFC 2009a;
ASMFC 2004)--we consider these stock assessments the best available
information regarding trends in harvest levels. We have revised the
Supplemental Document (added a footnote to table 23) to clarify that
the landings reported to NMFS are provided for context only and cannot
be converted to numbers of crabs and thus cannot be directly compared
to the data reported to the ASMFC.
(116) Comment: One commenter stated that the proposed rule does not
make clear in the discussions of egg availability or harvest pressure
that female HSC harvest in the Delaware Bay bait fishery has been
prohibited since 2006.
Our Response: We have revised the Supplemental Document (Factor E--
Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Link A) to clarify
this point.
(117) Comment: One commenter stated that efforts to restrict the
HSC fishery are inconsistent from State to State, and that restrictions
imposed by individual States are being successfully challenged and
overturned by the commercial fishing industry. One commenter stated
that other States (besides New Jersey) still do not have a ban on HSC
harvesting, and this needs to be changed. Another commenter stated that
the New Jersey moratorium on HSC fishing in its portion of Delaware Bay
is insufficient to protect the red knot from continued population
decline in the face of coastal development and constant disturbance at
migratory stopover sites and with climate change affecting food
availability in the Arctic.
Our Response: Regulation of the HSC fishery by the ASMFC is
consistent coastwide, in that all member States follow the same
Fisheries Management Plan. However, due to regional and local
differences (e.g., status and trends of HSC populations; nature and
intensity of harvests), each State ends up with different quotas. In
addition, each member State within the ASMFC is required to establish
and enforce its own harvest regulations that ensure compliance with the
Fishery Management Plan, and the specifics of these regulations vary
from State to State. Each ASMFC member State may opt to adopt harvest
limits that are more restrictive than those mandated by the ASMFC, but
these limits would be subject to legal challenges within the regulatory
framework of that State. New
[[Page 73740]]
Jersey's moratorium, which is more restrictive than required by the
ASMFC, results in implementation of the ARM being more conservative
(see Our Response 49), but has also raised concerns about unintended
consequences (see Our Response 120). Notwithstanding the potential
risks and benefits of New Jersey's moratorium, we continue to conclude
that management of HSC harvests under the ARM is adequate to abate the
food supply threat to red knots from HSC harvest in Delaware Bay.
However, even with highly successful harvest management under the ARM,
the HSC population will continue to grow only to the extent that it
remains limited by harvest; other factors affecting crab populations
cannot be affected by management of the fishery. (See Our Response 46
regarding these other factors, as well as new uncertainty about the
future of the ARM). In addition, we agree that, beyond the supply of
HSC eggs, there are other substantial and widespread threats to the red
knot (see Our Response 108).
(118) Comment: One commenter stated that New Jersey's moratorium on
HSC harvest does not appear to have a scientific basis.
Our Response: Each ASMFC member State may opt to adopt harvest
limits that are more restrictive than those mandated by the ASMFC. We
factored New Jersey's moratorium into our analyses of current harvest
levels and management practices, but we recognize that the New Jersey
legislature could decide to lift the moratorium at any time. If that
happens, New Jersey would be required to abide by the ASMFC harvest
recommendations set forth by the ARM process. We conclude that harvest
levels set through the ARM process are adequate to manage the threat to
red knots from insufficient food resources in Delaware Bay.
(119) Comment: One commenter doubted that overharvest of HSCs could
have occurred based on the successively restrictive harvest regulations
implemented in New Jersey from 1993 through 1997.
Our Response: We disagree. No definitions of ``overfishing'' or
``overfished'' have been adopted by the ASMFC for HSC (ASMFC 2013b, p.
21). That said, Delaware Bay's HSC population is affected by harvests
in Delaware and parts of Maryland and Virginia, as well as in New
Jersey. Our evaluation of best available data (78 FR 60024, pp. 60064-
60067 and Supplemental Document section Horseshoe Crab--Harvest and
Population Levels) shows that coastwide harvest levels grew sharply
from 1993 through 1997, and that the 2004 stock assessment found a
clear preponderance of evidence that HSC populations in the Delaware
Bay Region declined from the late 1980s to 2003 (ASMFC 2004, p. 27).
(120) Comment: One commenter stated that the State of New Jersey
still maintains its ultraconservative HSC management strategy of a
moratorium when the ARM framework would allow commercial fishermen to
harvest 162,000 male HSCs from New Jersey outside of the spawning
season. New Jersey's insistence of maintaining a moratorium has led to
some negative biological consequences in redirecting fishing effort to
New York and Massachusetts spawning populations of HSCs, which are now
in decline. The HSC bait shortage has also led to the dangerous
importation of Asian HSCs, all species of which are highly depleted, to
meet the bait needs of the domestic whelk/conch and eel fisheries.
Our Response: We are aware of the finding that decreased harvest of
the Delaware Bay population has redirected harvest to other parts of
the Atlantic coast that now may be at unsustainable levels (ASMFC
2013b, p. 22). As discussed in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60067; Factor D: The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms, p.
12), we also agree the importation of Asian HSCs is a threat to both
the native HSC and the red knot. We have updated the Supplemental
Document (Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--
Link A, Part 2) with new information regarding efforts by individual
States to restrict the import of Asian HSCs. The Service will evaluate
the need to expand Lacey Act restrictions on the import of Asian HSCs
at the Federal level. In addition, a Service biologist was recently
selected by the IUCN as one of six scientists to assess and make
recommendations on the status of the HSC throughout its range, with a
counterpart team assessing the Asian species. The Service shares the
concern of this commenter for the coastwide management and conservation
of the HSC, and we intend to continue our active role in the ASMFC's
management of the HSC fishery that considers the Delaware Bay
population in a coastwide context.
We are aware that some ASMFC members have expressed concern that
harvest levels in the Delaware Bay Region, which are set by the ASMFC
and further reduced by New Jersey's moratorium, have raised the price
of bait crabs and thus contribute to both the redirecting of harvest to
other parts of the coast and the increasing interest in importing Asian
crabs as alternative bait (ASMFC 2013f, p. 1). We lack data to
determine the relative roles, if any, of the New Jersey moratorium
versus the coastwide regulation by the ASMFC in driving these trends.
We continue to support the ARM as a scientifically sound mechanism for
managing Delaware Bay's HSC fishery that adequately abates the threat
to red knots from food supply issues in the bay. See Our Responses 117
and 118 regarding New Jersey's moratorium.
(121) Comment: Several commenters disagreed with our conclusion
that, as managed under the ARM, current HSC harvest levels are not a
current threat to the red knot. Conversely, several other commenters
stated that the ARM framework adopted by the ASMFC appears to be an
effective approach to managing harvest in Delaware Bay so that
conservation of red knots and other shorebirds and HSCs are balanced
with societal demands. In addition, since the model was favorably peer-
reviewed in 2009, its management strategy prioritizes the needs of
migratory shorebirds, and it is based on the best available science, it
should fully satisfy section 9 of the Act if the listing is approved.
Our Response: We have reviewed information and analyses of the ARM
provided by several commenters, but continue to conclude based on the
best available data that, as long as it is functioning as intended, the
ARM framework adequately abates the threat to the red knot from the HSC
bait harvest. We agree that the ARM is based on best available science
and is a sound process. The Supplemental Document (Factor E--Reduce
Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--Adaptive Resource
Management) has been updated to clarify that our conclusions about the
ARM are based on (1) the technical soundness of the peer-reviewed
models; (2) the explicit linking of HSC harvest quotas to red knot
population targets; and (3) the adaptive nature of both the models and
the framework, which are intended to regularly adjust as new
information becomes available. Our conclusion is supported by recent
computer simulations by Smith et al. (2013, entire). Although these
simulations are not intended to predict actual timeframes for
population growth, they did show that simulated red knot population
trajectories under HSC harvest scenarios governed by the ARM almost
matched simulated red knot population trajectories under a fixed HSC
moratorium scenario; thus, the bait harvest levels allowed under the
ARM are expected to have a negligible effect
[[Page 73741]]
on the red knot's Delaware Bay stopover population.
In the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60097), we concluded that the
harvest of HSCs in accordance with the ARM, provided the ARM is
implemented as intended (e.g., including implementation of necessary
monitoring programs) and enforced, is not likely to result in a
violation of section 9 of the Act. Thus, we do not anticipate
recommending additional HSC harvest restrictions in Delaware Bay
(beyond the ARM) as a result of listing the red knot. (However, see Our
Response 46 regarding new uncertainty about the future of the ARM.) We
intend to continue our active role in the ASMFC's management of the HSC
fishery, and will provide recommendations and technical assistance to
ensure that future harvests of HSCs do not result in take of red knots
under section 9 of the Act.
(122) Comment: One commenter stated that both the HSC trawl survey
and spawning survey have generally experienced difficulty detecting
changes in the regional HSC population, although the trawl survey
measured some significant increases in response to management, and both
surveys have shown some improvement since the early 2000s. The temporal
and spatial extent of the spawning survey may be inadequate to detect
population growth, and it may not be able to accommodate changing
shoreline conditions caused by erosion and flooding. Similarly, the
Virginia Tech trawl survey did not originally sample any stations
within the Delaware Bay, and the scale and design of the survey may not
be sufficient to detect population changes consistently. With quotas
that have been specified at levels consistent with population
rebuilding since Addendum III, the power of the existing surveys to
detect population changes warrants review.
Our Response: We disagree. Evaluations of these surveys and their
methods have been done in the past and continue to be done by the
ASMFC. See Our Response 46 regarding discontinuation of the Virginia
Tech trawl survey.
(123) Comment: One commenter stated that existing data to evaluate
trends in red knot weight gain at Delaware Bay are flawed. This
commenter cited statements from a peer-reviewed report prepared for the
ASMFC: ``existing data . . . are not adequate to evaluate their
relative importance [late arrivals versus insufficient food supply] for
any year of record . . . attempts to estimate growth rate based on
independent samples of body mass are inherently flawed'' (USFWS 2003,
p. 6). Based on these statements, this commenter concluded that all the
weight gain data from 1997 to 2002 are flawed.
Our Response: While we agree that these statements appear in a
USFWS report (2003, p. 6), we disagree with the conclusion of the
commenter. On the previous page, this report states, ``there is
agreement that a smaller percentage of rufa red knots are making
threshold departure weights by the end of May in recent years,'' and
goes on to discuss the two possible explanations (late arrivals and
insufficient food supply), as well as different analytical methods for
determining weight gains (USFWS 2003, p. 5). Although the available
weight gain data set could not be used to determine the relative
importance of late arrivals versus insufficient food supply, USFWS
(2003, p. 6) concluded, ``the two hypotheses forwarded to explain
changes in weight gain in Delaware Bay red knots are not mutually
exclusive, but instead represent two factors which operate in tandem to
affect departure weights from Delaware Bay.'' That these two factors
(late arrivals and insufficient food supplies) worked synergistically
to cause a decline in red knot departure weights was the same
conclusion we reached in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60072,
60094). We agree that attempts to estimate growth rates (i.e., rates of
weight gain) from samples of birds taken over the course of the
stopover period are problematic for the same reason cited by USFWS
(2003, p. 6) (i.e., uncertainty in arrival times of the birds in each
sample), as we noted in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60068). That
said, we did not rely on this parameter (rates of weight gain over the
course of the season) in our analysis. Instead, we relied on a
different analytical parameter, the proportion of red knots above a
threshold weight at the end of May, which we conclude is an appropriate
index for trends in red knot weight gain since 1997, as discussed in
the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60068) and in the Supplemental
Document (Factor E--Reduced Food Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest--
Link B, Part 2).
(124) Comment: One commenter, citing comments of individual Service
representatives at meetings of various ASFMC bodies, concluded that
Service managers find the basic red knot science is flawed.
Our Response: Various levels of uncertainty are associated with all
scientific data. As an active participant in the ASMFC's management of
the HSC fishery, Service representatives routinely engage in robust
discussions regarding the strengths and weaknesses of available HSC and
red knot data sets. Our current agency conclusions, based on a detailed
analysis, are presented in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60063-
60071) and the Supplemental Document (Factor E--Reduced Food
Availability--Horseshoe Crab Harvest). Our key conclusion is that,
although the causal chain from HSC harvest to red knot populations has
several links associated with various levels of uncertainty, the weight
of evidence supports these linkages, points to past harvest as a key
factor in the decline of the red knot, and underscores the importance
of continued HSC management to meet the needs of the red knot.
(125) Comment: One commenter reported anecdotal information that no
red knots had been observed by mid-May 2014 in Delaware Bay, and that
HSCs were unusually small and few.
Our Response: Red knot distribution and abundance within Delaware
Bay vary considerably from year to year, and within years, based on
weather, food availability, disturbance patterns, and other factors.
Likewise, spatial and temporal patterns of HSC spawning are highly
dependent on weather (especially water temperature) as well as habitat
conditions. We may consider anecdotal data when no other data sets are
available. However, in Delaware Bay, other data sets (e.g., red knot
peak counts, red knot total passage population estimates, red knot
weight gain data, HSC spawning and trawl surveys) are available that
are based on consistent methodologies, such that these data sets can be
evaluated for long-term trends despite the naturally high variability
in these natural systems. Preliminary reports from two of these data
sets show both red knot abundance and weight gain in Delaware Bay
continued at a somewhat improved level in 2014, for a third consecutive
year (A. Dey pers. comm. June 30 and July 23, 2014).
(126) Comment: Several commenters stated that commercial fishermen
from Maine through Florida have made great sacrifices for well over a
decade of increasing regulation of the HSC bait fishery. Some fishermen
went out of business, not only because the allowable harvest for bait
was severely restricted, but also because the other fisheries that
relied on HSCs as bait (e.g., whelk/conch, eel, and minnow) experienced
a bait shortage and spiraling bait costs. The Service maintains that a
serious red knot population decline occurred in the 2000s caused
primarily by reduced food availability from increased harvests of HSCs,
but the Service also
[[Page 73742]]
acknowledges that red knot numbers appear to have stabilized in the
past few years. Since knot numbers have stabilized, the restrictions
placed on the HSC harvests (i.e., the Fishery Management Plan and
subsequent addenda, most recently the ARM framework), appear to have
been effective in providing sufficient food resources for the
shorebirds. The regulatory regime for the HSC fishery was designed to
meet the feeding needs of migratory shorebirds. Based on the success of
these harvest restrictions in stabilizing the knot population, the
commercial industry has done its part. The commercial fishermen and
related industries have borne a disproportionate share of protecting
these migratory shorebirds.
Our Response: We agree that the actions of the ASMFC and the
commercial fishing industry have been instrumental in halting the
decline of the red knot's stopover population in Delaware Bay. In
addition to restricting harvests through the Fisheries Management Plan
(including the most recent iteration, the ARM), the ASMFC has taken
several proactive steps to substantially reduce landings (see Our
Response 46 and proposed rule 78 FR 60024, p. 60064). We recognize and
appreciate these efforts. As noted in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024,
p. 60063), most data suggest that the volume of HSC eggs is currently
sufficient to support the Delaware Bay's stopover population of red
knots at its present size. However, it is not yet known if the egg
resource will continue to adequately support red knot population growth
over the next decade. Further, the red knot population in Delaware Bay
appears to have stabilized at a notably low level. Therefore, sustained
focus on protecting the red knot's food supply continues to be vital to
the recovery of the red knot, and will be addressed during the recovery
planning process. We intend to continue our active role in the ASMFC's
management of the HSC fishery and do not anticipate recommending
additional HSC harvest restrictions in Delaware Bay (beyond the ARM) as
a result of listing the red knot (however, see Our Response 46
regarding new uncertainty about the future of the ARM). Also see Our
Response 2 regarding economic and other implications of listing that we
may not consider in listing determinations, and Our Response 120
regarding bait prices.
(127) Comment: One commenter suggested that focusing efforts on the
many foreign countries that continue to allow the legal and illegal
hunting of red knots would be more productive in producing tangible
results for the long-range survival of the species than imposing
further restrictions in the United States where red knot hunting is no
longer permitted.
Our Response: We agree that the effects of legal and illegal
hunting on the red knot should continue to be assessed and minimized
through international conservation partnerships. Work in this area has
already begun and changes are in progress, as noted in the Supplemental
Document (Factor B--Hunting). As noted in the proposed rule (78 FR
60024, p. 60053), we have no evidence that hunting was a driving factor
in red knot population declines in the 2000s, or that hunting pressure
is increasing. However, while not currently a threat in the United
States, hunting is one of many threats affecting the knot. The Service
will continue to enhance our work with partners across the range of the
knot to reduce or ameliorate all ongoing or emerging threats.
(128) Comment: Several commenters believe that legal and illegal
hunting of shorebirds is a major issue facing red knots and other
shorebirds that migrate through the Caribbean basin and winter along
the northern coast of South America, and that the proposed rule
understates the overall importance of direct mortality from hunting on
driving population change in shorebird populations. These commenters
cite recent evidence suggesting that at least 2,000 red knots pass
through the Guianas during southbound migration and that many birds
likely stage in this area and coastal Venezuela during northbound
migration. Further, documented hunting pressure is significant in
Suriname, with estimates that between 20,000 and 100,000 shorebirds are
taken annually. While the proposed rule suggests that Suriname is not
likely an important area for red knot, there are suitable habitats and
observations of hundreds of birds from this country. Likewise, another
commenter asked how the Service can find that individual hunting
mortality does not seem to affect the population as a whole if there
are no data on hunting anywhere, especially illegal hunting.
Our Response: We appreciate this new information and have
incorporated it into the Supplemental Document (Migration and Winter
Habitats; Population Surveys and Estimates; Factor B--Hunting--
Caribbean and South America). We have made minor changes to our
conclusions regarding the overall importance of hunting as a threat to
the red knot. While only low to moderate red knot mortality is
documented, we acknowledge that additional undocumented mortality is
likely. The findings of Watts (2010) suggest that even moderate
(hundreds of birds) direct human-caused mortality may begin to have
population-level effects on the red knot. However, we do not have
adequate information to reasonably know if hunting mortality is or was
previously at this level in the Guianas (CSRPN 2013; Niles 2012b; D.
Mizrahi pers. comm. October 16, 2011; Harrington 2001, p. 22), though
we conclude that it was likely much lower (tens of birds) in the
Caribbean islands (G. Humbert pers. comm. November 29, 2013; W. Burke
pers. comm. October 12, 2011; A. Levesque pers. comm. October 11, 2011;
Hutt and Hutt 1992, p. 70). We expect mortality of individual knots
from hunting to continue into the future, but at stable or decreasing
levels due to the recent international attention to shorebird hunting.
(129) Comment: One commenter stated that red knots are still
heavily hunted in many places and in many places are called ``snipe.''
Snipe are legally hunted, but the average person in the field cannot
tell the difference between a red knot and a snipe. This commenter
contends that the Service has data on hunted red knots from the bands
returned during snipe hunts, and the August 13, 2011, shorebird hunting
workshop summary shows close to 500,000 shorebirds, including snipes
and red knots, have been killed by hunters in the Caribbean and South
America in just a few years. Further, one red knot researcher has in
the past (2005) publicly denied any hunting of shorebirds, but has full
knowledge of the hunting.
Our Response: We disagree with the conclusions of the commenter. In
the proposed rule (Rufa Red Knot Ecology and Abundance, p. 4), we
discussed the numerous common names for red knot that were historically
used by hunters in the United States. We agree that red knots have been
historically called snipe, and that hunting of Wilson's snipe
(Gallinago delicata) (previously called common snipe (Gallinago
gallinago)) is still legal in the United States (USFWS 2012c); however,
we have no data to suggest that red knots are being killed in the
United States incidental to the legal hunting of Wilson's snipe. Lowery
(1974, p. 309) notes that, even in winter plumage, the red knot's shape
and bill make this species comparatively easy to distinguish from
common snipe and other similarly sized shorebirds. Snipe occupy
different habitats (flooded, shallow emergent marsh) than do red knots
(exposed flats), and snipe are
[[Page 73743]]
solitary while red knots tend to occur in flocks (C. Dwyer pers. comm.
July 18, 2014). Although the margins of error are large, the best
available estimates (Raftovich et al. 2014, p. 54) show very few snipe
hunters in the Atlantic Flyway States (C. Dwyer pers. comm. July 18,
2014).
We agree that a rough understanding of red knot mortality levels
from hunting in South America has come from band returns, as discussed
in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp. 60050-60052) and the
Supplemental Document (Factor B--Hunting). Throughout our analysis of
hunting, we relied heavily on the 2011 shorebird hunting workshop
report (USFWS 2011e), and agree that this report documents high levels
of shorebird hunting in some parts of the Caribbean and South America.
However, much of the information in this report is not specific to red
knot. Thus, we supplemented this information with data from other
sources. We cannot respond to comments about the public statements of
any particular red knot researcher. However, based on our review, we
conclude that most of the international red knot research and
conservation community has become gradually aware of the hunting issue
over the past decade, and now regard it as an important area for
conservation actions, many of which are underway. See Our Responses 127
and 128 above for additional information on our conclusions regarding
hunting as a threat to red knot.
(130) Comment: Several commenters contend that the Service must
revise its oil- and gas-related findings in the proposed rule to more
accurately state that (1) based upon the best available data and
information, oil spills and leaks have had, at most, minimal impacts,
and there is no available information to suggest that the risk of
future oil spills is likely to be other than minimal; and (2) there is
no available information demonstrating that permitted oil and gas
activities have had any adverse effects on the rufa red knot, and such
activities do not pose a threat to the species. Further, based upon the
current record, there is no information available to support a
conclusion that potential future spills are ``likely'' to impact red
knots.
Our Response: We agree that documented effects of oil and gas
extraction and transport on red knots and their habitats to date have
been minimal, as stated in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p. 60087).
However, we disagree that the future risk is minimal. Based on the
review and analysis we presented in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, pp.
60083-60087), we found that red knots are exposed to large-scale
petroleum extraction and transportation operations in many key
wintering and stopover habitats. We also found that a number of spills
and leaks have occurred in red knot areas. The minimal effects to red
knots from these past incidents is attributable to fortunate (for the
knots) timing or weather conditions, and we conclude that such
fortunate circumstances are unlikely to accompany all future spills and
leaks affecting red knot habitats. Thus, we continue to conclude that
high potential exists for small or medium spills to impact moderate
numbers of red knots or their habitats, such that one or more such
events is likely over the next few decades, based on the proximity of
key red knot habitats to high-volume oil operations. A major spill
affecting habitats in a key red knot concentration area while knots are
present is less likely but would be expected to cause population-level
impacts.
(131) Comment: Several commenters stated that the proposed rule
relied on inappropriate and nonscientific sources to erroneously
associate mosquito control adulticides (specifically the pesticide
fenthion) with adverse effects to birds, and that there is no
scientific evidence to link the bird deaths referenced in the proposed
rule to a particular pesticide or mosquito control operation. In
addition, the proposed rule erroneously stated that fenthion had been
banned by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), when
actually the USEPA regulates, but does not ban, pesticides. In fact,
the manufacturer of fenthion voluntarily cancelled its label for
mosquito control, thereby withdrawing it from the mosquito control
market. Labels for other uses of fenthion were not affected by the
withdrawal of the mosquito control label.
Our Response: Although we believed the data to be accurate at the
time we reviewed and used them in the proposed rule (78 FR 60024, p.
60088), we could not, upon further review, verify that fenthion caused
the mortality of piping plovers. We agree that we erroneously misstated
that fenthion had been banned by the USEPA. We have withdrawn the
Contaminants--Florida section entirely from the final rule and
Supplemental Document.
(132) Comment: One commenter asked what data support the emerging
threat on the breeding grounds since the Service states that
comprehensive counts from the breeding grounds are not available
because nesting knots are thinly distributed across a huge and remote
area of the Arctic.
Our Response: First, we conclude that changing relationships
between red knots and their predators are likely a part of overall
ecosystem changes due to rapid arctic warming. Although there is high
uncertainty about how such ecosystem changes will unfold, there is high
certainty that ecosystem changes are already occurring and will
continue. We have updated the Supplemental Document (Factor A--Arctic
Warming) with the IPCC's new findings of early warning signs that
arctic ecosystems are already experiencing irreversible regime shifts
(Summary for Policymakers in IPCC 2014, p. 12). Given the sensitivity
of red knots to predation rates on the breeding grounds (78 FR 60024,
p. 60057), we conclude that these ecosystem changes constitute a threat
to the red knot.
Second, Fraser et al. (2013, entire) found preliminary evidence for
one mechanism by which ecosystem changes may have already impacted red
knot populations--through rodent-mediated changes in predation
pressure. Additional studies would be needed to support this hypothesis
(Fraser et al. 2013, p. 13). However, we have updated the Supplemental
Document (Factor C--Predation--Breeding Areas) with new information
that, although factors other than climate change may also be important,
the documented collapse or dampening of rodent cycles in some parts of
the Arctic over the last 20 to 30 years can be attributed to climate
change with ``high confidence'' (Chapter 28 in IPCC 2014, p. 14). Thus,
we conclude that the geographic extent and duration of future
interruptions to these rodent cycles is likely to intensify as the
arctic climate continues to change. Disruptions in the rodent-predator
cycle pose a substantial threat to red knot populations, as they may
result in prolonged periods of very low red knot reproductive output.
Red knot counts from the breeding grounds are not necessary to reach
this conclusion.
(133) Comment: One commenter asked how confident the Service is in
dismissing predation in the geographically large nonbreeding portion of
the red knot's range.
Our Response: We disagree that we have ``dismissed'' predation in
nonbreeding areas (see proposed rule 78 FR 60024, pp. 60055-60057 and
Supplemental Document section Factor C--Predation--Nonbreeding Areas),
and conclude that predation in these areas is likely to exacerbate
other threats to red knot populations.
(134) Comment: Several commenters noted that areas offshore of
Delaware Bay are being studied for potential installation of wind
turbines. The Wind
[[Page 73744]]
Energy Areas (WEA) proposed for the States of Delaware and Maryland
appear to be placed precisely in the path of the red knots arriving in
May after flying nonstop from northeast South America.
Our Response: We have updated the Supplemental Document to
reference these WEAs, as well as leases that have been, or are
scheduled to be issued for development of offshore wind energy. Our
analysis of risks to red knots from the likely future development of
wind energy in the Atlantic OCS is presented in the Supplemental
Document, with only minor changes from the proposed rule (see Our
Responses 21 through 25).
(135) Comment: One commenter stated that, while the Service may
``expect ongoing improvements in turbine siting, design, and operation
[to] help minimize bird collision hazards'' in the future, there is no
indication this has happened or will happen. There is no Federal,
State, or local ability or willingness to regulate wind energy projects
in Texas or to deter poor siting decisions through prosecution of
Migratory Bird Treaty Act violations. Thus, projects continue to be
built in areas where risk to avian resources, including red knots, is
potentially high.
Our Response: The commenter is correct that the Service cannot
control or regulate the development of projects that lack a Federal
nexus, including wind energy projects in any State. However, we do work
with project developers to find locations that pose less of a risk to
migratory birds and other species, and to find methods to reduce the
risk of collisions during operation. This voluntary process is informed
by an improved understanding, through research, of migratory bird
behavior and project design. Researchers from a wide variety of
government agencies, academic institutions, and nongovernmental
organizations continue to study factors related to birds' wind turbine
collision risks. As the science evolves and our understanding of these
risk factors increases, measures are developed and implemented to help
minimize bird fatalities. Specifically, research and post construction
observations have led companies to strictly control lighting at their
projects, thus reducing the collision risk for night migrating birds.
More information is available on our Web site at http://www.fws.gov/windenergy/.
(136) Comment: One commenter stated that, though the Service is
``not aware of any documented red knot mortalities at any wind turbines
to date,'' it is not appropriate to make any conclusion based on a lack
of data. This commenter contends that the wind energy projects along
the Texas coast may represent the highest risk exposure red knots face
from wind energy anywhere, yet data are either not being gathered or
not being shared by these projects. In either case, effectively zero
data are available on which to base a conclusion, and a precautionary
principle should apply since it is well known that wind energy
installations have the potential to be sources of mortality. Further,
without data it seems unjustifiable to assume that this is either
currently insignificant or that the cumulative impacts from current and
future buildout in the area will be insignificant.
Our Response: We have revised the Supplemental Document (Factor E--
Wind Energy Development--Terrestrial) with new findings from Loss et
al. (2013, pp. 201, 202, 207) that accessibility to relevant data
remains a problem, particularly for the tallest (greater than 262 ft
(80 m)) turbines, because most of the mortality data are in industry
reports that are not subjected to scientific peer review or available
to the public. We have also revised the Supplemental Document to
conclude that, based on the higher frequency and lower altitudes of red
knot flights along the coasts, as well as the coastal location of most
large, known U.S. nonbreeding red knot roosting and foraging areas,
collision and displacement risks per turbine (notwithstanding
differences in specific factors such as turbine size, design,
operation, siting) are likely higher along the coasts than in areas
either far offshore or far inland. In the Supplemental Document (Factor
E--Wind Energy--Summary) we state that we do not believe any turbine
related mortality is causing subspecies level effects. However our
primary concern is that as buildout of wind energy infrastructure
progresses, especially near the coasts, mortality from turbine
collisions may contribute to a subspecies-level effect due to the red
knot's modeled vulnerability to low levels of mortality (Watts 2010, p.
1).
(137) Comment: One commenter stated that red knots will not be
killed by wind turbines. The claim of red knot mortality will be used
to stop the placement of wind turbines at a time when clean energy is
needed.
Our Response: We disagree that red knots will not be killed and
that risks to red knots will prevent wind energy development (see
Comments 21 and 22). The Department of the Interior supports the
development of wind energy, and the Service works to ensure that such
development is bird- and habitat-friendly (USFWS 2012d; Department of
Energy and Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and
Enforcement 2011; Manville 2009).
(138) Comment: Several commenters requested that we recognize North
Carolina's proactive coastal oversight at the State and local levels,
which has resulted in the construction and maintenance of high-quality
sandy shorelines via beach nourishment and inlet relocation. These
commenters contend that North Carolina has done a great deal to create
the right balance between use of beaches and protection of wildlife and
that the State's regulatory approach to coastal storm damage reduction
projects, borrow source and native beach compatibility, and inlet
location management is ensuring these sandy habitat areas continue
functioning in multispecies resilient manners. One commenter stated
that North Carolina does not allow hard structures.
Our Response: We recognize that North Carolina is working to
sustainably manage sandy habitats to meet multispecies resiliency. We
have revised the Supplemental Document (Factor D--United States--
Coastal Management) to recognize North Carolina's Technical Standards
for Beach Fill (15A NCAC 07H .0312), which address sediment
compatibility of material proposed to be placed on beaches. We have
also revised the Supplemental Document (Factor A--U.S. Shoreline
Stabilization--Hard Structures) to recognize that, as a result of a
1985 State prohibition on new hard structures, there are only a few
permanent, hard stabilization structures along North Carolina's
beaches. Despite such measures, however, some red knot habitats in
North Carolina are vulnerable to degradation due to beach hardening
practices. For example, 2011 legislation authorized an exception for
construction of up to four new terminal groins in North Carolina (Rice
2012a, p. 8, discussed at 78 FR 60024, p. 600369), and some of North
Carolina's coastal communities have begun seeking authorization from
the State legislature for additional hard structures. Although the
construction of new hard stabilization structures remains highly
restricted in North Carolina, extensive temporary structures have been
utilized including sand tube groins, sand tube bulkheads, and
approximately 350 sandbag revetments (Rice 2012a, p. 9). Finally, beach
nourishment and beach bulldozing are prevalent in North Carolina. Most
of these beaches are nourished at least every 3 years, some as often as
every year (K. Matthews pers. comm. May 2, 2014). Even with State
regulations to ensure sediment
[[Page 73745]]
compatibility, such frequent nourishment can interfere with natural
coastal processes and affect shorebird habitat (e.g., benthic prey
availability) (K. Matthews pers. comm. May 2, 2014; Zajac and Whitlatch
2003, p. 101; Greene 2002, p. 25; Peterson and Manning 2001, p. 1;
Hurme and Pullen 1988, p. 127). However, it is noted that beach
nourishment can be important in establishing or maintaining beachfront
red knot habitat in some areas. Depending on the site and situation,
beach nourishment can be beneficial or detrimental to red knot habitat
(see Comment 58). The negative effects to habitat associated with beach
nourishment are expected typically to be short term, though repeated
renourishing may prolong the adverse effects to habitat.
Determination
Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), and its implementing
regulations at 50 CFR part 424, set forth the procedures for adding
species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and
Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Act, we may list a species based
on (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C)
Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its
continued existence. Listing actions may be warranted based on any of
the above threat factors, singly or in combination.
We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial
information available regarding the past, present, and future threats
to the rufa red knot. We have identified substantial threats to the red
knot attributable to Factors A, B, C, and E. The primary driving
threats to the red knot are from habitat loss and degradation due to
sea level rise, shoreline hardening, and Arctic warming (Factor A), and
reduced food availability and asynchronies (mismatches) in the annual
cycle (Factor E). Other factors may cause additive red knot mortality.
Individually these other factors are not expected to have subspecies
level effects; however, cumulatively, these factors could exacerbate
the effects of the primary threats if they further reduce the species'
resiliency. These secondary factors include hunting (Factor B);
predation in nonbreeding areas (Factor C); and human disturbance, oil
spills, and wind energy development, especially near the coasts (Factor
E). All of these factors affect red knots across their current range
and are expected to continue or intensify into the future.
Conservation efforts are being implemented in many areas of the red
knot's range (see Factors A, B, C, and E in the Supplemental Document--
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species). For example, in 2012, the
ASMFC adopted the ARM (ASMFC 2012e, entire) for the management of the
HSC population in the Delaware Bay Region to meet the dual objectives
of maximizing crab harvest and red knot population growth. In addition,
regulatory mechanisms exist that provide protections for the red knot
directly (e.g., MBTA protections against take for scientific study or
by hunting) or through regulation of activities that threaten red knot
habitat (e.g., section 404 of the Clean Water Act, Rivers and Harbors
Act, Coastal Barrier Resources Act, Coastal Zone Management Act, and
State regulation of shoreline stabilization and coastal development)
(see Supplemental Document--Summary of Factors Affecting the Species--
Factor D). While these conservation efforts and existing regulatory
mechanisms reduce some threats to the red knot (see Factor D discussion
in the Supplemental Document--Summary of Factors Affecting the
Species), significant risks to the subspecies remain.
Red knots migrate annually between their breeding grounds in the
Canadian Arctic and several wintering regions, including the Southeast
United States, the Northeast Gulf of Mexico, northern Brazil, and
Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of South America. During both the
spring and fall migrations, red knots use key staging and stopover
areas to rest and feed. This life history strategy makes this species
inherently vulnerable to numerous changes in the timing of quality food
(Factor E) and habitat resource availability (Factor A) across its
geographic range. While a few examples suggest the species has some
flexibility in migration strategies, the full scope of the species'
adaptability to changes in its annual cycle is unknown.
The Act defines an endangered species as any species that is ``in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range'' and a threatened species as any species ``that is likely to
become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range
within the foreseeable future.'' We find that the rufa red knot meets
the definition of a threatened species due to the present and likely
continued destruction and modification of habitat and curtailment of
the species' range driven by the effects of climate change, and reduced
food resources and further asynchronies in its annual cycle that result
in the species' reduced redundancy, resiliency, and representation. We
base this determination on the immediacy, severity, and scope of the
threats described above. Therefore, on the basis of the best scientific
and commercial data available, we are listing the rufa red knot as a
threatened species in accordance with sections 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the
Act. We find that an endangered species status is not appropriate for
the rufa red knot because, while there is uncertainty as to how long it
may take some of the climate-induced changes to manifest in population-
level effects to the rufa red knot, we find that the best available
data suggest the rufa red knot is not at a high risk of a significant
decline in the near term such that it is currently in danger of
extinction and, therefore, meeting the definition of an endangered
species under the Act. However, should the reduction in redundancy,
resiliency, or representation culminate in an abrupt and large loss, or
initiation of a steep rate of decline, of reproductive capability and
success (corresponding to Factor E) or we subsequently find that the
species does not have the adaptive capacity to adjust to shifts in its
food and habitat resources (corresponding to Factor E), then the red
knot would be at higher risk of a significant decline in the near term
and we would reassess whether it meets the definition of an endangered
species under the Act.
Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species may
warrant listing if it is endangered or threatened throughout all or a
significant portion of its range. The rufa red knot is wide-ranging,
and the threats occur throughout its range. Therefore, we assessed the
status of the subspecies throughout its entire range. The threats to
the survival of the subspecies are not restricted to any particular
significant portion of that range. Accordingly, our assessment and
proposed determination applies to the subspecies throughout its entire
range.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions,
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain
practices. Recognition through listing results in public awareness, and
conservation by Federal, State, tribal, and local agencies, private
organizations, and individuals. The Act encourages cooperation with the
States and requires that recovery actions be carried out for all listed
[[Page 73746]]
species. The protection required by Federal agencies and the
prohibitions against certain activities are discussed, in part, below.
The primary purpose of the Act is the conservation of endangered
and threatened species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. The
ultimate goal of such conservation efforts is the recovery of these
listed species, so that they no longer need the protective measures of
the Act. Subsection 4(f) of the Act requires the Service to develop and
implement recovery plans for the conservation of endangered and
threatened species. The recovery planning process involves the
identification of actions that are necessary to halt or reverse the
species' decline by addressing the threats to its survival and
recovery. The goal of this process is to restore listed species to a
point where they are secure, self-sustaining, and functioning
components of their ecosystems.
Recovery planning includes the development of a recovery outline
shortly after a species is listed and preparation of a draft and final
recovery plan. The recovery outline guides the immediate implementation
of urgent recovery actions and describes the process to be used to
develop a recovery plan. Revisions of the plan may be done to address
continuing or new threats to the species, as new substantive
information becomes available. The recovery plan identifies site-
specific management actions that set a trigger for review of the five
factors that control whether a species remains endangered or may be
downlisted or delisted, and methods for monitoring recovery progress.
Recovery plans also establish a framework for agencies to coordinate
their recovery efforts and provide estimates of the cost of
implementing recovery tasks. Recovery teams (composed of species
experts, Federal and State agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and
stakeholders) are often established to develop recovery plans. When
completed, the recovery outline, draft recovery plan, and the final
recovery plan will be available on our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/endangered), or from the New Jersey Field Office (see FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT).
Implementation of recovery actions generally requires the
participation of a broad range of partners, including other Federal
agencies, States, tribes, nongovernmental organizations, businesses,
and private landowners. Examples of recovery actions include habitat
restoration (e.g., restoration of native vegetation), research, captive
propagation and reintroduction, and outreach and education. The
recovery of many listed species cannot be accomplished solely on
Federal lands because their range may occur primarily or solely on non-
Federal lands. To achieve recovery of these species requires
cooperative conservation efforts on private, State, and Tribal lands.
We also recognize that for some species, measures needed to help
achieve recovery may include some that are of a type, scope, or scale
that is independent of land ownership status and beyond the control of
cooperating landowners.
Following publication of this final listing rule, additional
funding for recovery actions will be available from a variety of
sources, including Federal budgets, State programs, and cost-share
grants for non-Federal landowners, the academic community, and
nongovernmental organizations. In addition, pursuant to section 6 of
the Act, the States of Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut,
Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota,
Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey,
New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania,
Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont,
Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming and Puerto Rico and the
U.S. Virgin Islands would be eligible for Federal funds to implement
management actions that promote the protection or recovery of the rufa
red knot. Information on our grant programs that are available to aid
species recovery can be found at: http://www.fws.gov/grants.
Please let us know if you are interested in participating in
recovery efforts for the rufa red knot. Additionally, we invite you to
submit any new information on this species whenever it becomes
available and any information you may have for recovery planning
purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Section 7(a) of the Act requires Federal agencies to evaluate their
actions with respect to any species that is listed as an endangered or
threatened species and with respect to its critical habitat, if any is
designated. Regulations implementing this interagency cooperation
provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR part 402. If a species is
listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires Federal
agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out
are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or
destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal action
may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the responsible
Federal agency must enter into consultation with the Service.
Federal agency actions within the species' habitat that may require
conference or consultation or both as described in the preceding
paragraph include management and landscape-altering activities on
Federal lands administered by the Department of Defense, the Service,
and NPS; issuance of section 404 Clean Water Act permits and shoreline
stabilization projects implemented by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers;
construction and management of gas pipeline rights-of-way by the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission; leasing of Federal waters by BOEM
for the construction of wind turbines; and construction and maintenance
of roads or highways by the Federal Highway Administration.
Under section 4(d) of the Act, the Service has discretion to issue
regulations that we find necessary and advisable to provide for the
conservation of threatened species. The Act and its implementing
regulations set forth a series of general prohibitions and exceptions
that apply to threatened wildlife. The prohibitions of section 9(a)(1)
of the Act, as applied to threatened wildlife and codified at 50 CFR
17.31, make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of
the United States to take (which includes harass, harm, pursue, hunt,
shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect; or to attempt any of
these) threatened wildlife within the United States or on the high
seas. In addition, it is unlawful to import; export; deliver, receive,
carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign commerce in the
course of commercial activity; or sell or offer for sale in interstate
or foreign commerce any listed species. It is also illegal to possess,
sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any such wildlife that has
been taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply to employees of the
Service, NMFS, other Federal land management agencies, and State
conservation agencies.
We may issue permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving threatened wildlife under certain circumstances. Regulations
governing permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.32. With regard to
threatened wildlife, a permit may be issued for the following purposes:
for scientific purposes, to enhance the propagation or survival of the
species, and for incidental take in connection with otherwise lawful
activities. There are also certain statutory exemptions from
[[Page 73747]]
the prohibitions, which are found in sections 9 and 10 of the Act.
(1) It is our policy, as published in the Federal Register on July
1, 1994 (59 FR 34272), to identify to the maximum extent practicable at
the time a species is listed, those activities that would or would not
constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act. The intent of this
policy is to increase public awareness of the effect of a final listing
on proposed and ongoing activities within the range of a listed
species.
Based on the best available information, the following activity is
unlikely to result in a violation of section 9, if this activity is
carried out in accordance with existing regulations and permit
requirements; this list is not comprehensive: Harvest of HSC in
accordance with the ARM, provided the ARM is implemented as intended
(e.g., including implementation of necessary monitoring programs), and
enforced.
Based on the best available information, the following activities
may potentially result in a violation of section 9 the Act; this list
is not comprehensive:
(1) Unauthorized collecting, handling, possessing, selling,
delivering, carrying, or transporting of the species, including import
or export across State lines and international boundaries, except for
properly documented antique specimens of these taxa at least 100 years
old, as defined by section 10(h)(1) of the Act;
(2) introduction of nonnative species that compete with or prey
upon the rufa red knot, or that cause declines of the red knot's prey
species;
(3) unauthorized modification of intertidal habitat that regularly
supports concentrations of rufa red knots during the wintering or
stopover periods; and
(4) unauthorized discharge of chemicals or fill material into any
waters along which the rufa red knot is known to occur.
Questions regarding whether specific activities would constitute a
violation of section 9 of the Act should be directed to the New Jersey
Field Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). Requests for copies
of the regulations concerning listed animals and general inquiries
regarding prohibitions and permits may be addressed to the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Endangered Species Permits, 300 Westgate Center
Drive, Hadley, MA, 01035 (telephone 413-253-8615; facsimile 413-253-
8482).
Required Determinations
National Environmental Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)
We have determined that environmental assessments and environmental
impact statements, as defined under the authority of the National
Environmental Policy Act need not be prepared in connection with
listing a species as an endangered or threatened species under the
Endangered Species Act. We published a notice outlining our reasons for
this determination in the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR
49244).
Government-to-Government Relationship with Tribes
In accordance with the President's memorandum of April 29, 1994
(Government-to-Government Relations with Native American Tribal
Governments; 59 FR 22951), Executive Order 13175 (Consultation and
Coordination with Indian Tribal Governments), and the Department of the
Interior's manual at 512 DM 2, we readily acknowledge our
responsibility to communicate meaningfully with recognized Federal
Tribes on a government-to-government basis. In accordance with
Secretarial Order 3206 of June 5, 1997 (American Indian Tribal Rights,
Federal-Tribal Trust Responsibilities, and the Endangered Species Act),
we readily acknowledge our responsibilities to work directly with
tribes in developing programs for healthy ecosystems, to acknowledge
that tribal lands are not subject to the same controls as Federal
public lands, to remain sensitive to Indian culture, and to make
information available to tribes. We coordinated with applicable Tribes
throughout the U.S. range of the rufa red knot, but received no
information indicating that the species is known to occur on Tribal
lands.
References Cited
A complete list of references cited in this rulemaking is available
on online at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket Number FWS-R5-ES-
2013-0097 and upon request from the New Jersey Field Office (see FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Authors
The primary authors of this final rule are the staff members of the
New Jersey Field Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.
Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, we amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title 50
of the Code of Federal Regulations, as follows:
PART 17--[AMENDED]
0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 1531-1544; and 4201-4245,
unless otherwise noted.
0
2. In Sec. 17.11(h), add an entry for ``Knot, rufa red'' to the List
of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in alphabetical order under Birds
to read as set forth below:
Sec. 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
[[Page 73748]]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species Vertebrate
------------------------------------------------------ population where Critical Special
Historic range endangered or Status When listed habitat rules
Common name Scientific name threatened
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* * * * * * *
BIRDS...........................
* * * * * * *
Knot, rufa red.................. Calidris canutus Argentina, Aruba, Entire............ T 855 N/A N/A
rufa. Bahamas, Barbados,
Belize, Brazil,
British Virgin
Islands, Canada,
Cayman Islands, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica,
Cuba, Dominican
Republic, El Salvador,
France (Guadeloupe,
French Guiana,
Martinique),
Guatemala, Guyana,
Haiti, Jamaica,
Mexico, Panama,
Paraguay, Suriname,
Trinidad and Tobago,
Uruguay, Venezuela,
U.S.A. (AL, AR, CO,
CT, DC, DE, FL, GA,
IA, IL, IN, KS, KY,
LA, MA, MD, ME, MI,
MN, MO, MS, MT, NC,
ND, NE, NH, NJ, NY,
OH, OK, PA, RI, SC,
SD, TN, TX, VA, VT,
WI, WV, WY, Puerto
Rico, U.S. Virgin
Islands).
* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* * * * *
Dated: November 21, 2014.
Matthew Huggler,
Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2014-28338 Filed 12-10-14; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P