DROWNING THE NORTH CAROLINA COAST: SEA-LEVEL RISE AND ESTUARINE SHORELINE EROSION
By:
Department of Geology
East Carolina University
Greenville, NC 27858
Submitted To:
NORTH CAROLINA
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES
225 NORTH McDOWELL ST.
RALEIGH, NC 27602
NORTH CAROLINA SEA GRANT COLLEGE PROGRAM
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY
100 B 1911 BUILDING
RALEIGH, NC 27695-8605
MAY 5, 2003
PAGE
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................... 4
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................... 5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................... 13
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................. 15
1.1. THE COASTAL DILEMMA ......................................... 15
1.2. THE ESTUARINE SHORELINE ..................................... 18
1.3. CONCLUSIONS ................................................. 19
2. GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK OF THE NORTH CAROLINA
COASTAL SYSTEM ................................................ 19
2.1. PHYSICAL SETTING OF COASTAL SYSTEM .......................... 19
2.2. NORTH CAROLINA COASTAL PROVINCES ............................ 28
2.3. GEOLOGIC CONTROLS OF COASTAL PROVINCES ...................... 28
2.3.A. Southern Coastal Province ........................... 28
2.3.B. Northern Coastal Province ........................... 31
2.3.C. Consequences of the Geologic Differences ............ 31
2.4. SHORELINES AND STORMS ....................................... 32
2.4.A. The Flow of Energy .................................. 32 2.4.B. Role of Barrier Islands and Their
Inlet/Outlet Systems ................................ 33
2.4.C. Role of Paleotopography in Estuarine Dynamics ....... 33
3. CHARACTER OF DROWNED-RIVER ESTUARINES .................... 34
3.1. TYPES OF ESTUARINE BASINS ................................... 34
3.2. THE ESTUARINE BASINS ........................................ 34
3.2.A. Basin Morphology .................................... 34
3.2.B. Basin Sediments ..................................... 44
3.3. BACK-BARRIER SOUNDS ......................................... 47
3.3.A. Back-Barrier Sounds of the Northern Province ........ 47
3.3.B. Back-Barrier Sounds of the Southern Province ........ 50
3.4. TRUNK ESTUARIES ............................................. 51
3.4.A. Trunk Estuaries of the Northern Province ............ 51
3.4.B. Trunk Estuaries of the Southern Province ............ 60
3.5. TRIBUTARY ESTUARIES ......................................... 61
4. TYPES OF ESTUARINE SHORELINES .............................. 61
4.1. SHORELINE TYPES ............................................. 61
4.2. SEDIMENT-BANK SHORELINES .................................... 61
4.2.A. General Characteristics ............................. 62
4.2.B. Strandplain Beaches ................................. 65
4.3. ORGANIC SHORELINES .......................................... 72
4.3.A. Swamp-Forest Shorelines ............................. 72
4.3.B. Marsh Shorelines .................................... 79
4.4. COMBINATION SHORELINES ...................................... 88
4.5. BACK-BARRIER SHORELINES ..................................... 91
4.5.A. Overwash Barrier Islands ............................ 91
4.5.B. Complex Barrier Islands ............................. 96
PAGE
5. ESTUARINE SHORELINE EROSION PROCESSES ............... ..... 101
5.1. SHORELINE EROSION VARIABLES ................................ 101
5.1.A. Physical Setting of Coastal Segments ................ 101
5.1.B. Fringing Vegetation ................................. 101
5.1.C. Boats and Shoreline Erosion ......................... 103
5.2. STORMS, STORM TIDES, AND COASTAL EROSION ................... 103
5.2.A. Storms and Coastal Erosion .......................... 103
5.2.B. Storm Tides in Northern Province Estuaries .......... 103
5.2.C. Hurricane Storm Tides ............................... 107
5.2.D. Storm Tides in Southern Province Estuaries .......... 108
MAJOR CAUSE OF ESTUARINE SHORELINE EROSION .............. 109
SEA-LEVEL CHANGE AND COASTAL DYNAMICS ...................... 109
QUATERNARY PERIOD OF GLACIATION ............................ 109
Glaciation-Deglaciation ............................. 109
The Holocene Interglacial ........................... 110
The Modern Coastal System and Ongoing Sea-Level Rise . 113
THE FLOODING PROCESS CONTINUES ............................. 116
Present Rates of Sea-Level Rise ..................... 116
Future Rates of Sea-Level Rise ...................... 116
7. LONG-TERM ESTUARINE SHORELINE EVOLUTION IN THE NORTH
CAROLINA COASTAL SYSTEM ..................................... 126
7.1. SEA-LEVEL RISE AND SHORELINE CHANGE IN CROATAN SOUND ........ 126
7.1.A. Historical Drowning of the Coastal System ........... 126
7.1.B. Shoreline Erosion in Croatan Sound .................. 131
7.1.C. Changes Along the Old Croatan Bridge Corridor ...... 134
7.1.D. Estimated Shoreline Recession Rates ................ 134
7.1.E. Cedar Island Marsh Analog ........................... 137
7.2. OTHER EVIDENCE OF ESTUARINE EXPANSION ....................... 137
8. SHORT-TERM ESTUARINE SHORELINE EROSION IN
NORTH CAROLINA ................................................ 140
8.1. REGIONAL ESTUARINE SHORELINE EROSION STUDIES ................ 140
8.1.A. Summary of Former Studies ........................... 140
8.1.B. Overview of Present Study ........................... 144
8.2. BACK-BARRIER ESTUARINE SHORELINE EROSION SITES .............. 147
8.2.A. Summary: Back-Barrier Shorelines .................... 147
8.2.B. Hatteras Overwash Site .............................. 150
8.2.C. Buxton Inlet Site ................................... 157
8.2.D. Salvo Day-Use Site .................................. 167
8.2.E. Jockey’s Ridge and Seven Sisters Dune Fields ........ 174
8.2.F. Nags Head Woods Site ................................ 185
8.2.G. Duck Field Research Facility ........................ 190
8.3. MAINLAND ALBEMARLE—PAMLICO SOUND SHORELINE EROSION SITES .... 197
8.3.A. Summary: Mainland Albemarle--Pamlico Shorelines ..... 197
8.3.B. North Roanoke Island ................................ 198
8.3.C. Woodard’s Marina Site ............................... 209
8.3.D. Grapevine Landing Site .............................. 217
8.3.E. Point Peter Road Site ............................... 222
8.3.F. North Bluff Point Site .............................. 229
8.3.G. Swan Quarter Site ................................... 236
8.3.H. Lowland Site ........................................ 239
PAGE
8.4. PAMLICO RIVER SHORELINE EROSION SITES ....................... 246
8.4.A. Summary: Pamlico River Shorelines ................... 246
8.4.B. Wades Point Site .................................... 248
8.4.C. Hickory Point and Pamlico Marine Lab ................ 255
8.4.D. Bayview Site ........................................ 264
8.4.E. Camp Leach Site ..................................... 269
8.4.F. Mauls Point Site .................................... 269
8.4.G. Bay Hills Site ...................................... 274
9. CONCLUSIONS ................................................... 288
10. REFERENCES CITED .............................................. 295
TABLE 2-3-1. Coastal characteristics of the Southern and
Northern Provinces of North Carolina result from
differences in the underlying geologic framework. ...................... 32
TABLE 4-1-1. Types of shorelines that characterize the
North Carolina estuarine perimeters. ................................... 62
TABLE 5-1-1. Definition of major estuarine shoreline
erosion variables. ..................................................... 102
TABLE 7-1-1. Estimated historical shoreline recession
rates along the old bridge corridor in Croatan Sound. ................. 134
TABLE 8-1-1. Distribution and abundance of shoreline
types in the estuarine system of northeastern North
Carolina. ............................................................. 141
TABLE 8-1-2. Natural and human features that modify
various shoreline types and the erosional and
accretionary status of shorelines in the northeastern
North Carolina estuarine system. ...................................... 142
TABLE 8-1-3. Summary of the average annual rate of
estuarine shoreline erosion for shoreline types in
northeastern North Carolina coastal system. ........................... 143
TABLE 8-2-1. Summation of short-term estuarine
shoreline erosion rates for back-barrier sites,
northern Outer Banks, based upon the present study. ................... 149
TABLE 8-3-1. Summation of short-term estuarine
shoreline erosion rates for the Albemarle-Pamlico
estuarine sites based upon the present study. ......................... 198
PAGE
TABLE 8-3-2. Generalized shoreline characteristics along
the north side of Roanoke Island as of 2001. .......................... 199
TABLE 8-4-1. Summation of short-term estuarine
shoreline erosion rates for the Pamlico River sites
based upon the present study. ......................................... 247
TABLE 9-1-1. Summary of estuarine shoreline erosion
data from the back-barrier island study sites of
northeastern North Carolina. .......................................... 288
TABLE 9-1-2. Summary of estuarine shoreline erosion
data from the mainland Albemarle--Pamlico Sound study
sites in northeastern North Carolina. ................................. 289
TABLE 9-1-3. Summary of estuarine shoreline erosion
data from the Pamlico River study sites in
northeastern North Carolina. .......................................... 289
TABLE 9-1-4. Average erosion rates for different
shoreline types in northeastern North Carolina. ....................... 290
TABLE 9-1-5. Summary of estuarine shoreline erosion
data in northeastern North Carolina by region. ........................ 292
TABLE 9-1-6. Measured and predicted land loss due
to estuarine shoreline erosion in northeastern
North Carolina. ....................................................... 293
FIGURE 1-1-1. Map and photo series showing the
demise of Batts Island at the mouth of the Yeopim
River in Albemarle Sound. .............................................. 16
FIGURE 2-1-1. Location map of the physiographic
provinces and drainage basins that interact to
produce the vast North Carolina coastal system. ........................ 20
FIGURE 2-1-2. Location map of major coastal features
for the North Carolina coastal system. ................................. 22
FIGURE 2-1-3. 1999 satellite image of northeastern
North Carolina coastal system. ........................................ 24
FIGURE 2-1-4. 1996 false color satellite image of
southeastern North Carolina coastal system. ........................... 26
PAGE
FIGURE 2-2-1. Generalized geologic map of the North
Carolina Coastal Plain showing the two coastal provinces
and four geomorphic compartments of the coastal system. ................ 29
FIGURE 3-2-1. Map of the Albemarle estuarine
system delineating the zones within the estuarine
trunk-river basin, along with salinity gradients and
tidal processes that characterize each zone. .......................... 35
FIGURE 3-2-2. Schematic map of the different
components of a drowned river estuarine system. ....................... 38
FIGURE 3-2-3. Schematic cross-sectional profile
A-A’ shows morphology down the central basin axis
of drowned-river estuaries. ........................................... 40
FIGURE 3-2-4. Schematic cross-sectional profiles B-B’
and C-C’ of the transition zone from riverine to
estuarine ecosystems within the drowned-river estuaries. .............. 42
FIGURE 3-2-5. Schematic cross-sectional profile D-D’
showing the morphology and distribution and
composition of general sediment types perpendicular
across a drowned-trunk river estuary. .................................. 45
FIGURE 3-3-1. Oblique aerial photographs of
back-barrier estuaries in the Northern Province. ...................... 48
FIGURE 3-3-2. Oblique aerial photographs of
back-barrier estuaries in the Southern Province. ...................... 52
FIGURE 3-3-3. Infrared aerial photo mozaic of the
Intracoastal Waterway (ICWW) dug channel between
the mainland and Onslow Beach. ........................................ 54
FIGURE 3-3-4. Photographs of shoreline erosion along
the Intracoastal Waterway (ICWW) channel. ............................. 56
FIGURE 3-4-1. Infrared aerial photograph mosaics
of the riverine—estuarine transition zone of the
Chowan and Tar-Pamlico Rivers. ........................................ 58
FIGURE 4-2-1. Schematic model of a sediment-bank
shoreline showing the wave-cut scarp, wave-cut
platform, and strandplain beach perched on the platform. .............. 63
FIGURE 4-2-2. Photographs of eroding bluff and
high sediment bank estuarine shorelines. .............................. 66
FIGURE 4-2-3. Photographs of low sediment
bank estuarine shorelines. ............................................ 68
PAGE
FIGURE 4-2-4. Photographs of sediment bank shorelines
with bulkheads and no sand strandplain beaches. ....................... 70
FIGURE 4-3-1. Schematic model of a swampforest shoreline. ............. 73
FIGURE 4-3-2. Photographs of swampforest shorelines
in the riverine—estuarine transition zone of the
Roanoke River and Albemarle Sound. .................................... 75
FIGURE 4-3-3. Photographs of vegetatively-bound
swampforest shorelines in the headwaters of small
tributary estuaries and outer trunk estuaries where
receding shorelines have intersected pocosin swampforests. ............ 77
FIGURE 4-3-4. Photographs of shorelines dominated
by cypress headlands and cypress fringes. .............................. 80
FIGURE 4-3-5. Schematic model of a marsh platform
shoreline characteristic of the Northern Province where
astronomical tides are minimal and wind tides dominate. ............... 82
FIGURE 4-3-6. Photographs of fresh to brackish,
irregularly flooded, fringing marsh shorelines. ....................... 84
FIGURE 4-3-8. Photographs of high-brackish,
regularly flooded marsh shorelines and
associated tidal mudflats of the Southern Province. ................... 89
FIGURE 4-5-1. Schematic cross-sectional diagrams of
simple overwash and complex barrier islands and
associated back-barrier estuarine shorelines. ......................... 92
FIGURE 4-5-2. Comparison of back-barrier estuarine
shorelines on aerial photographs from 1932 and 1999
for the portion of Pea Island north of Rodanthe
on the northern Outer Banks. .......................................... 94
FIGURE 4-5-3. A 1983 aerial photograph of Kitty Hawk Woods
showing extensive development of beach ridge structures
and the interpreted beach ridge map of Fisher (1967). ................. 97
FIGURE 4-5-4. Comparison of the coastal portion
of a complex barrier island in the Kitty Hawk
area using aerial photographs from 1932 and 1999. ..................... 99
FIGURE 5-2-1. Model of estuarine wind tides in the
North Carolina sounds in response to storm events. .................... 105
FIGURE 6-2-1. Generalized sea-level curve for the
last 40,000 years of Earth history and extending
100 years into the near future. ....................................... 111
PAGE
FIGURE 6-2-2. Structure contour map on top of Pleistocene
sediments in Pamlico Sound. Reconstruction of the
paleotopography and paleodrainage system in northeastern
North Carolina during the last Pleistocene glacial maximum. ........... 114
FIGURE 6-3-1. Map of ocean shoreline change from 1852
to 1965 demonstrating the recession of the ocean beach
at Cape Hatteras (Fisher, 1967). ...................................... 117
FIGURE 6-3-2. Tide gauge data from Hampton, VA and
Charleston, SC demonstrate the rate of ongoing
sea-level rise. ....................................................... 119
FIGURE 6-3-3. Marsh expansion at the expense of
pocosin swamp forest along the western shore of
Pamlico Sound from 1983 to 1998. ...................................... 122
FIGURE 6-3-4. Prediction for the initial short-term
barrier island collapse (decadal scale) and long-term
(century scale) evolution of barrier islands and
estuaries within northeastern North Carolina. ......................... 124
FIGURE 7-1-1. Historical maps depicting the evolutionary
development of Croatan Sound and opening of Roanoke
Marshes between Croatan and Pamlico Sounds. ........................... 127
FIGURE 7-1-2. Longitudnal cross section through
the paleo-Pamlico Creek, across the interstream
divide at Roanoke Marshes, and paleo-Croatan
Creek, into the Roanoke River. ........................................ 129
FIGURE 7-1-3. Side-scan sonar images of Croatan
Sound bottom showing relict geologic units
exposed on the sound floor. ........................................... 132
FIGURE 7-1-4. Composite of four bathymetric profiles
from Manns Harbor to Roanoke Island along the south
side of the old Croatan bridge (U.S. Highway 64). ..................... 135
FIGURE 7-1-5. Portion of a satelite image of Cedar
Island shows the modern process of drowning across
the Carteret Peninsula interstream divide. ............................ 138
FIGURE 8-1-1. Location map of estuarine
shoreline erosion study sites in northeastern
North Carolina included in the present study. ......................... 145
FIGURE 8-2-1. Photographs of the Hatteras
Overwash site. ......................................................... 151
PAGE
FIGURE 8-2-2. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto
Quarter Quadrangle for the Hatteras Overwash
site with digitized shorelines (1962 and 1998). ....................... 153
FIGURE 8-2-3. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Hatteras Overwash site (1945, 1962, and 1989). ..................... 155
FIGURE 8-2-4. Photographs of the Buxton Inlet site. .................... 158
FIGURE 8-2-5. An oblique aerial photograph (1992)
and aerial photograph (1999) showing multiple
‘goint-to-sea’ highways at the Buxton Inlet site. ..................... 160
FIGURE 8-2-6. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto
Quarter Quadrangle for the Buxton Inlet site
with digitized shorelines (1962, 1974, and 1998). ..................... 162
FIGURE 8-2-7. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Buxton Inlet site (1962, 1964, 1983, and 2000). .................... 164
FIGURE 8-2-8. Photographs of the Salvo Day-Use site. ................... 168
FIGURE 8-2-9. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto
Quarter Quadrangle for the Salvo Day-Use site
with digitized shorelines (1962 and 1998). ............................ 170
FIGURE 8-2-10. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Salvo Day-Use site (1962, 1978, and 1983). ......................... 172
FIGURE 8-2-11. Photographs of Jockey’s Ridge site. ..................... 175
FIGURE 8-2-12. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto
Quarter Quadrangle for the Jockey’s Ridge and
Nags Head Woods sites with digitized shorelines
(1964 and 1998). ...................................................... 177
FIGURE 8-2-13. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Jockey’s Ridge site (1962, 1971, and 1989). ........................ 179
FIGURE 8-2-14. The 1932 and 1999 aerial photograph
sequence for the Jockey’s Ridge and Seven Sisters
Dune Field sites. ..................................................... 181
FIGURE 8-2-15. The 1932 aerial photograph for the
Seven Sisters Dune Field site with 1998 digitized
shorelines and roads. ................................................. 183
FIGURE 8-2-16. Photographs of Nags Head Woods site. .................... 186
FIGURE 8-2-17. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Nags Head Woods site (1940, 1964, 1975, and 1983). ................. 188
FIGURE 8-2-18. Photographs of the Duck Field
Research Facility site. ................................................ 190
PAGE
FIGURE 8-2-19. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Duck Field Research Facility with
digitized shorelines for 1986, 1992, and 1998. ......................... 193
FIGURE 8-2-20. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Duck Field Research Facility site (1986,
1992, 1997, and 2000). ................................................. 195
FIGURE 8-3-1. Maps of northern Roanoke Island showing
shoreline erosion data of Dolan, modification
structures, coastal segments of this report, and
changing fetch around the northern end of the Island. ................. 200
FIGURE 8-3-2. Photographs of the North Roanoke
Island site. .......................................................... 202
FIGURE 8-3-3. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the north Roanoke Island site with
digitized shorelines for 1969, 1975, and 1998. ........................ 204
FIGURE 8-3-4. Aerial photograph time slices for
the north Roanoke Island site (1969 and 1994). ........................ 206
FIGURE 8-3-5. Photographs of the Woodard’s Marina site. ............... 211
FIGURE 8-3-6. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Woodard’s Marina site with
digitized shorelines for 1963 and 1998. ............................... 213
FIGURE 8-3-7. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Woodard’s Marina site (1956, 1978, 1989, and 2000). ............... 215
FIGURE 8-3-8. Photographs of the Grapevine Landing site. .............. 218
FIGURE 8-3-9. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Grapevine Landing site with
digitized shorelines for 1981 and 1998. ............................... 220
FIGURE 8-3-10. Photographs of the Point Peter Road site. .............. 223
FIGURE 8-3-11. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Point Peter Road site with
digitized shorelines for 1969 and 1998. ............................... 225
FIGURE 8-3-12. Aerial photo time slices for the
Point Peter Road site (1969, 1983, 1998, and 2000). ................... 227
FIGURE 8-3-13. Photographs of the North Bluff Point site. ............. 230
FIGURE 8-3-14. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the North Bluff Point site with
digitized shorelines for 1983 and 2000. ............................... 232
PAGE
FIGURE 8-3-15. Aerial photo time slices for
the North Bluff Point site (1983 and 1995). ........................... 234
FIGURE 8-3-16. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Swan Quarter site with
digitized shorelines for 1956 and 1998. ............................... 237
FIGURE 8-3-17. Photographs of the Lowland site. ....................... 240
FIGURE 8-3-18. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Lowland site with digitized
shorelines for 1964 and 1998. ......................................... 242
FIGURE 8-3-19. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Lowland site (1964, 1970, 1983, and 1995). ........................ 244
FIGURE 8-4-1. Photographs of the Wades Point site. .................... 249
FIGURE 8-4-2. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Wades Point site with
digitized shorelines for 1970, 1984, and 1998. ........................ 251
FIGURE 8-4-3. Aerial photo time slices for
the Wades Point site (1970, 1984, 1989, and 2000). .................... 253
FIGURE 8-4-4. Photographs of the Hickory Point site. .................. 256
FIGURE 8-4-5. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Hickory Point and Pamlico Marine Lab
sites with digitized shorelines for 1970, 1984, and 1998. ............. 258
FIGURE 8-4-6. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Hickory Point and Pamlico Marine Lab sites
(1970, 1984, and 2000). ............................................... 260
FIGURE 8-4-7. Photographs of the Pamlico Marine Lab site. ............. 262
FIGURE 8-4-8. Photographs of the Bayview site. ........................ 265
FIGURE 8-4-9. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Bayview site with digitized
shorelines for 1970 and 1998. ......................................... 267
FIGURE 8-4-10. Photographs of the Camp Leach site. .................... 270
FIGURE 8-4-11. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Camp Leach site with
digitized shorelines for 1970 and 1998. ............................... 272
FIGURE 8-4-12. Photographs of the Mauls Point site. ................... 275
FIGURE 8-4-13. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Mauls Point site with digitized
shorelines for 1970, 1984, and 1998. .................................. 277
PAGE
FIGURE 8-4-14. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Mauls Point site (1984 and 2000). ................................. 279
FIGURE 8-4-15. Photographs of the Bay Hills site. ..................... 282
FIGURE 8-4-16. The 1998 Digital Orthophoto Quarter
Quadrangle for the Bay Hills site with
digitized shorelines for 1970 and 1998. ............................... 284
FIGURE 8-4-17. Aerial photograph time slices for
the Bay Hills site (1938 and 1984). ................................... 286
This manuscript is a product of the North Carolina Coastal Geology Cooperative Program, a five-year, multi-institutional effort of East Carolina University (ECU), the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), and N.C. Geological Survey (NCGS). Primary funding is through the USGS, Coastal and Marine Geology Program (Woods Hole, MA) Cooperative Agreements 01ERAG0010 and 02ERAG0044. Supplementary support is from the U.S. National Park Service (P521001A704), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1448-40181-02-G-082), Environmental Defense, and ECU.
Dr. Lundie Spence, formerly the Marine Education Specialist with the N.C. Sea Grant College Program (NC SGCP), convinced us to write this manuscript, made the initial contacts with the N.C. Division of Coastal Management (NC DCM), and arranged for its publication. Publication funds for this manuscript were provided by grants from U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (US NOAA) and Albemarle-Pamlico National Estuary Program (A-P NEP) to Mr. Mike Lopazanski at NC DCM. Sincere appreciation is extended Mike Lopazanski (NC DCM) and Ann Green (NC SGCP) for sheparding the manuscript through the many development phases and to Stephen Benton (NC DCM) and Spencer Rogers (NC SGCP) for manuscript reviews.
Special thanks go to the faculty, staff, and students of the Geology and
Biology Departments at East Carolina University, who carried out numerous studies during the 1970s on estuarine shoreline erosion in the North Carolina coastal system. These studies were done under the auspices of the N.C. Sea Grant College Program. Dr. Michael P. O’Connor and Dr. Vincent J. Bellis, co-investigators who participated in the early estuarine shoreline erosion studies, helped develop the scientific understanding of this complex system. Graduate students instrumental in carrying out specific portions of the research include Stephen Benton, Scott Hardaway, Scott Hartness, and Daniel Pearson. Some of the data used herein has been synthesized from publications and theses produced by these co-investigators and their graduate students.
The authors and graduate students have carried out an extensive research
program concerning the origin and evolution of the North Carolina estuarine system for the late Pleistocene and Holocene (the last 20,000 years of earth history). This program began in the early 1980s and continues today and has included the following primary graduate students: Thomas Duque, Gary Eames, Stephen Fournet, Richard Moore, Megan Murphy, Greg Rudolph, Eric Sager, Angela Sproat, Robert Wyrick, and Douglas Yeates. Various aspects of the early phases of this research program were funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Defense, N.C. Albemarle—Pamlico Estuarine Study, N.C. Sea Grant College Program, and East Carolina University. These studies provided the preliminary scientific base upon which we built the ongoing ECU—USGS—NCGS Cooperative Program on the Coastal Geology of North Carolina.
Personal thanks are also extended to James Watson, research technician and boat captain, who supplied many months of hard labor on the North Carolina waterways and critical expertise in equipment operation and maintenance over the many years of field research. Thanks to Megan Murphy and Kimberly Sunderlin for assistance in producing some figures. Many other faculty, staff, students, individuals, and agencies supplied key support, information, and resources over the years that have allowed this long-term project to succeed-—we extend our greatest thanks to all of you.
DISCLAIMER
The contents of this book reflect only the data and views of the authors, who are responsible for the accuracy of the data and data interpretations presented herein. The contents do not reflect the official views or policies of any of the funding agencies or Federal and State organizations publishing this book.