This document constitutes our finding on the export of
wild American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, for the 2003 and 2004 harvest
seasons.
Please, be advised that, based on our analysis of available
information, we find that the export of wild American ginseng roots
of 5 years of age or older (i.e., with five or more bud-scale
scars on the rhizome) harvested during the 2003-2004 seasons in the following
States will not be detrimental to the survival of the species: Alabama,
Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota,
Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont,
Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
We will continue to monitor the status of American ginseng
in the wild, with the understanding that the above finding and associated
restrictions may be modified for exports of American ginseng harvested in
2004 if deemed necessary based on any new information that we may receive.
In 2005, we will re-evaluate the status of this species, including the outcome
of various actions being taken at the State and Federal levels, as described
in this finding.
BASIS FOR ADVICE
To ensure that American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius
L.) remains viable throughout its range in the United States and to determine
whether the export of American ginseng will not be detrimental to the survival
of the species, DSA annually reviews available information from various sources
(other Federal agencies, State regulatory agencies, industry and associations,
non-governmental organizations, and researchers) on the status and biology
of the species, and specifically for each State from which American ginseng
roots are exported.
Biology, ecology, and range of the species
1. American ginseng (hereafter
referred to as “ginseng”) is a slow-growing, long-lived (50 plus years) herbaceous
perennial of the Araliaceae family (Lewis and Zenger 1982). The species is
endemic to Eastern North America, occurring in southern Canada
(Ontario and Quebec) west to South Dakota and Oklahoma and south to Georgia
(Small and Catling 1999; NatureServe 2001).
2. Ginseng is a species of stable
habitats, such as the understory of mid-successional to late-successional
deciduous forests (Charron and Gagnon 1991). Plants emerge after the leaf
canopy has partially or fully developed (Lewis and Zenger 1982).
3. Although ginseng can grow on
a wide variety of soil textures and topographic conditions, it requires moist
soils and sites of low evapotranspiration loss (Anderson et al. 1993).
4. Below ground, ginseng
forms a thick taproot, a special underground stem known as a vertical rhizome
sits on top of the main root and sends up the above-ground stem each year.
The rhizome is characterized by large scars that form as a result of the
annual abscission or accidental loss of the single subterminal aerial stem.
These annual scars are well-marked on the rhizome and can be counted to determine
the age of the plant (Lewis and Zenger 1982). Growth rate varies among individuals,
so plants with the same number of leaves and leaflets may be close but not
identical in age (Anderson 2002).
5. Ginseng leaves are whorled,
palmately compound, with three to five leaflets (Radford et al. 1981). An
individual whorled leaf with a petiole is referred to as a “prong,” and is
commonly used to indicate the size-class or age of individual ginseng plant
(Lewis and Zenger 1983; Lockard and Swanson 1998).
6. Typically, ginseng has
been divided into four size-classes based on the number of leaves or prongs.
Generally, one-prong plants (with 3-5 leaflets) are 2 years of age, two-prong
plants (with 10 leaflets) ranged from 3 to 6 years of age, three-prong plants
(with 15 leaflets) ranged from 7 to 9 years of age, and four-prong plants
(with 20 leaflets) ranged from 10 to 11 years of age (Anderson et al. 1993).
Four- and five-prong plants represent the oldest individuals of a population
(Lewis and Zenger 1983).
7. Wild ginseng plants
do not reproduce until they are at least 4 years of age (Carpenter and Cottam1982;
Anderson et al. 1993; Dunwiddie and Anderson 1999).
8. Ginseng has perfect flowers (bisexual flowers): an individual
flower has both stamens (male) and carpels (female) (Carpenter and Cottam
1982; Lewis and Zenger 1982; Schlessman 1985). Although ginseng does have
a high natural rate of self-fertilization (Schlessman 1985), outcrossing (cross-pollination)
between plants has been reported (Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger
1983). However, ginseng is not apomictic: capable of producing seed without
any form of fertilization (Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
9. Ginseng is not an obligate
outcrosser (Carpenter and Cottam 1982). Ginseng flowers have been observed
to be pollinated with and without pollinator assistance (Carpenter and Cottam
1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985). Small bees in the family Halictidae
and flies in the family Syrphidae appear to be the major pollinators of ginseng
(Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985). However,
these pollinators probably do not transfer pollen between distant individuals
(Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
10.Ginseng fruits turn red at maturity and typically are two-seeded
in each berry-like fruit (Lewis and Zenger 1983). Although very infrequent,
ginseng fruit can yield three and four seeds (Anderson et al. 1984; Schlessman
1985). A typical flowering 4-year-old wild ginseng plant may produce 30-40
fruits on each inflorescence (Proctor and Bailey 1987).
11.The fecundity (number of offspring) of ginseng is low,
and seed production is positively correlated with age and size of the population
(Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Schlessman 1985). Seed
mortality is high, and is the most precarious portion of ginseng’s life cycle
(Lewis and Zenger 1982). Ginseng does not form a long-term seed bank (Anderson
et al. 1984; Charron and Gagnon 1991).
12.To germinate, seeds require an after-ripening process
(warm-cold sequence of temperature changes) that averages 18-22 months (Lewis
and Zenger 1982; Proctor and Bailey 1987).
The embryo is inactive during the first winter, matures during the next growing
season, and then endures a second winter before it is able to germinate (Hu
et al. 1980). Asexual (vegetative) reproduction of ginseng due to rhizome
or root fragmentation is very rare and unknown in most populations (Lewis
1988).
13.Ginseng is physiologically adapted to low light levels,
reaching light saturation (the intensity at which an increase in light does
not increase photosynthesis) at levels as low as 10% of full sunlight, whereas
maximum growth occurs up to 30% of full sunlight (Proctor 1980). At moderate
high light levels, ginseng can experience leaf chlorosis, (yellowing caused
by loss of or reduced development of chlorophyll) (Gagnon 1999), early leaf
senescence, or depressed growth (Anderson 2002).
14.Ginseng plants can senesce (a natural die-back
of the plant) during the summer, after the new terminal bud has formed, and
can appear “dormant” at the time of fall harvesting (Carpenter and Cottam
1982). More often, it is the largest plants that are likely to senesce early
in the summer and as a result do not produce any seed in that year (Carpenter
and Cottam 1982).
15.True dormancy in ginseng (failure to produce a
vegetative stem) is far less common than early leaf senescence, and can result
when there has been physical damage to the plant (e.g., animal damage)
(Carpenter and Cottam 1982).
16. Figure 1 (page 28) shows the
range of ginseng in North America and its conservation status according to
NatureServe, a non-profit organization that compiles and assesses data on
plants, animals, and ecological communities collected by the 50 State Natural
Heritage Programs, and Canada (NatureServe: An online encyclopedia of life
[web application]. 2001. Version 1.4. Arlington, Virginia, USA.
URL: http://www.natureserve.org/.
Accessed June 2, 2003).
Research and monitoring of American ginseng
1. Field studies of ginseng
have found that ginseng is highly self-fertile (Schluter and Punja 2000),
and pollination can occur between flowers on a single flower head (umbel)
or between flower heads. Furthermore, self-pollinated flowers produce the
same proportion of seeds as outcrossed (cross-fertilized) flowers (Carpenter
and Cottam 1982; Schlessman 1985). Schlessman (1985) suggested that the high
pollen-to-ovule ratio of ginseng inflorescences promotes adequate pollination
even though pollinator visits are infrequent. The author speculated that female
reproductive success of ginseng is probably governed by the amount of photosynthate
allocated to reproduction, rather than by abundance or efficiency of pollinators
(Schlessman 1985).
2. Schluter and Punja (2000)
confirmed Schlessman and other researchers’ observations that ginseng’s ability
to produce flowers that mature into fruit increases with the age and size
of the plant, and is regulated by the availability of site resources, such
as nutrients, water, sunlight (Carpenter and Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger
1983; Schlessman 1985).
4. A 10-year (1986-1996)
demographic study conducted by Dunwiddie and Anderson (1999) on two wild populations
of ginseng in Massachusetts found that the number of individual plants that
produced fruit varied considerably among years, ranging from 0.5% to 33% (Dunwiddie
and Anderson 1999).
5. Field research conducted
by Lewis and Zenger (1983) found that only 0.6% of wild ginseng seeds germinated
after 20 months. Although the researchers found that the ginseng seeds that
did germinate had a high probability (97%) of developing to adulthood (Lewis
and Zenger 1983). In contrast in experimental field tests where seeds were
sown by humans, germination rates were 55-75%.
6. Monitoring results of
10 wild ginseng populations in West Virginia found that 90% of ginseng seeds
remain within 2 meters of the parental plant (Van der Voot cited in McGraw
2003).
7. Researchers in Canada
have determined that the minimum viable population (MVP) size for ginseng
in Canada is 172 plants, including
reproductive and non-reproductive individuals (Nantel et al. 1996). This
number was based on the large quantity of fruits (seeds) produced, no large
plant dormancy or senescence of individuals, and an average population growth
rate of 1.04 (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
8. Based on a data set from
1998 to 2001, Dr. Gagnon calculated the MVP size
for ginseng in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) to
be 510 individuals. The estimated
size for the GSMNP is much larger than the 172 MVP size for Canada,
because, in the GSMNP, populations have a low average growth rate, plants
produced fewer fruits (seeds), and some large plants remain dormant or senesce
(Gagnon 2003). Dr. Gagnon speculated that a MVP of 510 in the GSMNP may also
be related to droughts during the third and fourth years of the study, and
that that the remaining populations of ginseng in the park are located on
marginal sites because poachers have extirpated ginseng from its preferred
habitat (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
9. A demographic study of six ginseng
populations (501 plants) in the GSMNP found that 45% of all plants had three
prongs and only 8.6% had four prongs. The population growth rates were close
to 1.0 (i.e., a stable population), which indicated that, for the populations
to remain viable, no harvesting could occur (J. Rock et al. 1999).
10.According to Dr. Gagnon, in general, populations that are
growing (even slowly) will have a smaller MVP size than populations that are
stable or declining (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
11.Wild-harvesting of ginseng removes the largest
reproductive individuals from populations (Charron and Gagnon 1991), which
reduces population sizes and the ability of populations to recover (Hackney
and McGraw 2001). Research by Hackney and McGraw (2001) shows that small
populations of ginseng may be particularly vulnerable to the Allee effect.
The Allee effect is when the fertility and survival of individuals of small
populations may be diminished once population size descends below a critical
threshold (Lande 1987; Caswell 1989; Veit and Lewis 1996; Groom 1998).
12.Hackney and McGraw (2001) tested for reproductive
limitations due to small population size (a form of the Allee effect) by experimentally
planting 453 individuals of 4-year-old cultivated ginseng plants in small
groups. Plant size traits, reproductive traits, and pollinator visits were
recorded. According to the researchers, their findings demonstrate that the
reduced number of fruits per flower and the reduced number of fruits per plant
are consistent with the operation of an Allee effect. They concluded that,
for ginseng, knowledge of the presence as well as the mechanism underlying
this Allee effect may be especially useful for the management and determination
of minimum viable population size of the species in the wild.
13. Charron and Gagnon (1991) found that the maximum sustainable
rate of harvest of ginseng is the rate at which mean growth rate exceeds from
the equilibrium value of 1.00 (population stability or maintenance).
14. Nantel (1996) and other researchers
have calculated that the percentage of sustainable harvest for many native
plants, including ginseng, is between 5% and 8% of a population, spread over
each size-class of plants. For example, a wild population
of 172 plants consisting of individuals in all size-classes (0=seedlings
to 4=four leaved plants) would have approximately 55 plants of size-classes
3 and 4. A harvest of 5% of the larger-sized plants would yield 2.9 or 3
plants per year, therefore leaving approximately 52 plants of the larger-size
classes (Nantel et al. 1996).
15. Research
by Dr. McGraw, of the University of West Virginia, found that the annual sustainable
harvest rate for ginseng should be no more than 5% in West Virginia, Kentucky,
and Tennessee (the top three leading exporters of wild ginseng in the United
States). A harvest rate of 5% would mean that only 5%
of plants within a size-class should be harvested. However, a harvester will
usually harvest all plants (100%) of the larger plants (three-leaved plants
and larger), and may occasionally leave the smaller-sized plants (Nantel et
al. 1996; Gagnon 1999).
16. Researchers
have concluded that low seed production, slow growth, and poor seed dispersal
have prevented historically harvested ginseng populations from expanding to
occupy other suitable sites, or from recolonizing habitats where it use to
grow (Dunwiddie and Anderson 1999; Rosser and Haywood 2002). As a result,
populations may become restricted and isolated as suitable habitat is fragmented
by logging (Rosser and Haywood 2002).
17. Examination
by West Virginia University researchers of 915 herbarium specimens of ginseng,
deposited in 17 herbaria across the country and collected randomly over a
period of 186 years, revealed a significant decrease in the height of wild
plants, most of which were collected since 1900 (McGraw 2001). This reduction
in plant size was region-specific, with specimens from the northern portion
of the species’ range in North America remaining the same size, whereas specimens
from the core of the species’ range (the midwestern, Appalachian, and southern
populations) declined in size. Dr. McGraw speculated that the change in the
physical size of the specimens was a direct consequence of harvest pressure.
Additionally, other researchers have found that the number of ginseng specimens
collected for herbaria also declined during the 20th Century, whereas
the number of specimens of other closely related species remained the same
or increased (K. Flinn, The College of William and Mary, pers. comm.).
18. Anderson (2002) studied 950
commercially harvested wild ginseng roots from 11 States and found no significant
relationship between age and root weight for individual states. However,
there was a tendency for harvested roots from southern states to have younger
mean ages than those harvested from northern states. Furthermore, there was
a linear increase in root weight with an increase in latitude for the 11 States.
Dr. Anderson’s work supports similar findings by McGraw (2001) that suggest
harvest pressure is greater in the southern States than in the northern States.
19. Several
researchers have suggested that local ginseng populations are highly adapted
to local conditions, and that artificial seeding (with non-local seed) may
lead to local loss of fitness, which could lead to an erosion of the gene
pool (H. Grubbs and Dr. M. Case Ginseng Conference, Louisville, Kentucky,
2000).
20. Holly
Grubbs and Dr. Case of the College of William and Mary found that there is
high genetic variability among wild ginseng populations, and low genetic variability
within populations (Ginseng Conference, Louisville, Kentucky, 2000).
21. Using
random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
genetic analysis, researchers found that sampled wild populations of ginseng
in North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin, and several cultivated specimens
were genetically diverse and different from each other (Boehm et al. 1999).
Furthermore, the researchers found that specimens of ginseng from the GSMNP
appeared to have a unique genetic integrity, which may represent a distinct
center of genetic diversity, as displayed with the coordination of genetic
values calculated with RAPD bands. However, the researchers also found that
wild specimens of ginseng collected in Pennsylvania displayed low genetic
diversity and were similar to cultivated specimens of ginseng. They concluded
that, in areas with a history of ginseng harvest, wild ecotypes may be mixed
with cultivated varieties (Boehm et al. 1999).
Status, Protection, Harvest, and Trade
1. Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius
L.) was listed in Appendix II of CITES in 1975. In 1983, we required that
all ginseng to be exported had to be certified as either wild or cultivated
[artificially propagated] (Carlson 1986). In 1999, to further protect wild
populations, we determined that only wild ginseng roots of 5 years of age
or older may be exported.
2. The primary cause of decline
for ginseng is that of exploitation by harvesters in response to consumer
demand (NatureServe 2001). The species is designated as “Endangered” in Canada;
the export of wild-harvested ginseng roots is prohibited by law (COSEWIC 2001).
In the United States, wild-collection
of ginseng is not permitted or is discouraged in Connecticut, Delaware, Maine,
Massachusetts, Michigan, and Rhode Island due to declines in populations.
Under State laws, ginseng is listed as “endangered” in Maine and as “threatened”
in Michigan. Declines have been documented on National Park (NP) lands, U.S.
Forest Service (USFS) lands, and throughout many other areas within the species’
range, including in Arkansas, Georgia,
Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Minnesota, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
3. Table 1 (pages 22-23)
shows the conservation status of ginseng in the United
States according to NatureServe (2001). Based on the
conservation status ranking system developed by NatureServe, none of the States
that currently allow the harvest of wild ginseng received a rating of secure
(S5), which would indicate that wild populations of the species are stable
(typically more than 100 occurrences, and more than 10,000 individuals).
Table 1 also shows the estimated number of populations of ginseng, the percentage
of counties from which ginseng is exported, and the estimated number of plants
harvested in 2001 (Kauffman 2003).
4. The
National Park Service (NPS) prohibits the harvest of native plants from national
parks. However, poaching of ginseng continues to occur and takes place not
only in major national parks (such as Great Smoky Mountains National Park,
Tennessee-North Carolina; Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky; and Shenandoah
National Park, Virginia), but also in smaller ones (such as Blue Ridge Parkway,
North Carolina and Virginia; Little River Canyon National Preserve, Alabama).
5. Between 1991 and 2001,
11,654 pounds of illegally harvested ginseng roots (an estimated 3,496,200
plants) were seized in the GSMNP, which encompasses 800 square miles (512,000
acres) within the core of the species’ range (J. Rock, GSMNP, pers. comm.).
In 2002, at Mammoth Cave National Park (MCNP), a poacher was apprehended
with 19 pounds of green ginseng roots (an estimated 5,700 plants) (M. DePoy,
MCNP, pers. comm.). (An average of 300 roots per pound at a one-to-one ratio of
root to plant).
6. To
combat the illegal harvest of ginseng in national parks, the NPS has implemented
several preventive strategies, such as permanently marking ginseng roots which
cause the roots to be unacceptable for sale.
7. Ginseng
poaching is not restricted to Federal and State lands; it also affects private
land owners (Ginseng Workshop, St. Louis, Missouri, February 19-21, 2003).
8. Historical harvest records
indicate that, from 1821 to 1899, an average of 381,000 pounds of wild ginseng
root were exported annually from the United States
(Anderson 1986). Exports for 1992-2001 have averaged 104,261 pounds (an estimated
31,278,300 plants) annually. Although the total weight of exported ginseng
has declined, it is believed to represent a greater number of individual plants
than in the 1800s because smaller plants (roots) are being harvested (Haber
1990). This is due to a general decline in the number of older plants available
for harvest.
9. In the late 1970s, ginseng
roots of wild origin accounted for approximately 30% of the roots exported
from North America, primarily to Asian markets. Today, only 3.5% of ginseng
exports are wild-harvested roots. To meet the international demand for ginseng,
the difference is derived from cultivated plants (Schippman 2001). Nevertheless,
the demand for wild ginseng roots remains high due to the preference by Asian
consumers for wild roots over cultivated ones.
10. With the exception of Maryland,
all of the States that currently have a wild ginseng export program have USFS
National Forest lands within their State boundaries (Figure 2, page 29).
11. Due
to concerns of over-harvest and the decline of ginseng on USFS lands in the
Eastern Region (R-9), in 1999 the Region designated ginseng (Panax
quinquefolius) as a Regional Forester Sensitive Species on the following
National Forests (NF): Shawnee NF, Illinois; Hoosier NF, Indiana; White Mountain
NF, Maine and New Hampshire; Ottawa and Huron Manistee NF, Michigan; Green
Mountain NF, Vermont; and Chequamegon/Nicolet NF, Wisconsin (Figure 2, page
29) (URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/america
ginseng.pdf. Accessed June 17, 2003). Ginseng cannot be harvested
on these NFs except as provided for in tribal agreements or research collection
permits (URL: http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/america
ginseng.pdf. Accessed June 17, 2003).
12. The
purpose of designating species as a USFS Regional Forester Sensitive Species
is to protect rare species and their habitats before there is a need to list
species as “threatened” or “endangered” under the U.S. Endangered Species
Act. Species designated as Sensitive Species are vulnerable due to low populations
and other risk factors. By designating ginseng as a Sensitive Species, USFS
policy mandates the completion of a conservation assessment of the species.
The conservation assessment will provide a review of known information regarding
the species’ distribution, habitat, ecology, and population biology. Upon
completion, the USFS will develop a conservation strategy for ginseng on NFs in the Eastern Region. Once
a conservation strategy is developed, the USFS may choose to work with cooperating
agencies or organizations to draft a formal conservation agreement that will
identify how the multiple entities can work together to conserve the species
(URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/ca-overview/index.htm.
Accessed June 17, 2003). The completion date for the conservation
assessment is scheduled for 2004 (G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.).
13. Only two NFs within the Eastern
Region continue to issue harvest permits for ginseng roots: Monongahela NF
(West Virginia) and Wayne NF (Ohio). In 2002, the Monongahela NF issued 21
permits (E. Ash, USFS, pers. comm.). The Wayne NF issued 180 permits in 2002,
compared to113 permits issued in 2001 (E. Larson, USFS, pers. comm.).
14.Field studies conducted on the Monongahela NF suggest
that ginseng has been reduced in some locations to populations of one to a
few dozen individuals (Van der Voort 1998).
15. Allegheny NF (Pennsylvania)
and Mark Twain NF (Missouri) in the Eastern Region do not have a formal policy
on the issuance of ginseng harvest permits (USFS personnel, pers. comm.).
However, the issuance of such permits is discouraged on these two NFs. The
Chippewa NF and Superior NF (Minnesota), Finger Lakes NF (New York), and Hiawatha
NF (Wisconsin) are within the range of ginseng; however, the species is not
currently known to be present within the boundaries of these National Forests
(URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/docs/rfss_plants_083002.pdf.
Accessed June 17, 2003).
16. The majority of the USFS
Southern Region (R-8) NFs (except NFs in Texas, Florida, and Puerto Rico)
are within the range of ginseng (Figure 2, page 29). Results from field monitoring
of ginseng in the Southern Region NFs indicated viability concerns with the
continued harvest of ginseng (USFS 2000). According to FS personnel, ginseng
on NF lands in the Southern Region has been completely extirpated from one-third
of its historic sites, and the remaining ginseng patches are smaller and composed
of younger individuals. USFS field data indicated that 95% of the ginseng
populations on the NFs in the Southern Region had significant persistence
risks (USFS 2000a) and are heading toward conditions in which ginseng will
no longer be economically or ecologically viable (Sutter and Kauffman 2000).
17. In 2000, the Southern
Region considered a temporary moratorium on the issuance of harvest permits
for ginseng due to concerns that collection rates may be exceeding sustainable
levels. However, the moratorium was not imposed.
18. However, within the USFS Southern
Region, several individual NFs have implemented harvest restrictions. In
2000, the Ozark-St. Francis and the Ouachita NFs in Arkansas established a
5-year moratorium on the harvest of ginseng to prevent further decline in
ginseng abundance and until monitoring data indicate that wild populations
can sustain harvesting (URL:http://www.fs.fed.us/oonf/ozark/new/ginseng-letter.html.
Accessed June 17, 2003).
19.Table 2 (page 24) shows the number of permits issued on
NFs in the Southern Region from 1999 to 2002 (F. Huber, C. Wentworth, D. Taylor,
M. Pistrang, G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.). Harvest permits are issued
for either one or two pounds each, and are counted as wet (green) or dry root
weight, depending on the particular NF. The high number of permits (787)
issued in 2001 on the Nantahala and Pisgah NFs in North Carolina may have
been a result of double-counting the number of permits issued for that year.
The actual number is most likely similar to the number of permits (600) issued
in 2000 (G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.).
20. To curtail the illegal poaching
of ginseng in wilderness areas and other protected areas, the USFS in North
Carolina has implemented a marking program similar to that used by the NPS
(G. Kauffman, USFS, pers. comm.).
21. In 1979, eight permanent plots
(50 x 50 meters) were established on NF lands in the Southern Region to monitor
ginseng. The plots were surveyed at various times throughout 1979-1983.
The eight plots were re-visited in 1999 and 2000; however, no individuals
were located in three of the plots. Population data from the five plots showed
a statistically significant declined in the mean population size, from 29.8
plants/plot in 1979 to 5.7 plants/plot in 1999. Results from field surveys
in 2000, indicated that 29% of the populations were extirpated, and that within
10 years 43% of the populations would not be viable.
22. Our
analysis of the harvest reports submitted by the States for the 2000 and 2001
harvest seasons identified a strong relationship between State counties and
NFs lands in the Southern Region and the harvest amounts reported. Most of
the ginseng harvested in several States is reported from counties that have
large percentages of USFS lands. For example, based on data from the 2000
and 2001 harvest reports from North Carolina, we found that 18 counties with
USFS lands accounted for 92% and 93%, respectively, of the total amount of
wild ginseng harvested in the State in these years. In Virginia, the percentages
of wild ginseng originating from 30 counties with USFS lands are 64% and 75%
for the 2000 and 2001 harvest seasons, respectively; and in Georgia,
the percentages are 65% and 89% for the 2000 and 2001 harvest seasons, respectively.
Figure 3 (page 30) shows ginseng amounts harvested by State counties in 1999
and 2000 (data provided by G. Kauffman, USFS).
23.As reported in our last four findings (1999-2002) for the
export of ginseng, the quantity of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng
has increased in the last decade. However, most States do not report wild-simulated
and woods-grown ginseng separately from “wild,” thereby potentially affecting
the harvest trend data for those States. The effects of reporting these quantities
together may indicate erroneously that wild populations within a particular
State have remained stable or have increased, allowing a greater harvest.
24. It is possible that the amount
of truly wild ginseng being harvested has decreased, potentially due to a
host of factors (decrease in abundance, increase in herbivory, habitat destruction),
whereas the amount of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng have increased,
thus compensating for and masking a decline in truly wild ginseng.
25.We are also concerned that small-size ginseng roots
(less than 5 years old) are being harvested from the wild to be replanted
in other areas, or sold domestically as “green” roots. The removal of these
young plants from wild populations reduces the number of seeds produced and,
therefore, future recruitment of individuals into those wild populations.
New Information and Research
1. The Fish and Wildlife
Service (Service), the ginseng export States, industry, academic researchers,
and others are working together to improve our understanding and knowledge
of wild ginseng, and to better assess the impact of harvest on wild ginseng
populations. To this end, the Service held a workshop with scientific researchers,
the States, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), and the USFS
during February 19-21, 2003, in St. Louis, Missouri. Current and ongoing
research presented at the workshop is included in this finding.
2. In 2003, we initiated
a research study, to be conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey/Biological
Resources Division (USGS/BRD) and with assistance from the USFS, to develop
a predictive habitat modeling database for ginseng within the core range of
ginseng in the southern Appalachians. Completion of this project is expected
in the fall of 2004. The second phase of the project will be to verify and
inventory identified habitat locations for ginseng.
3. In
2001, Dr. McGraw (2003) established 27 long-term monitoring plots for ginseng
in Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia, with one additional site in Indiana.
Results from two field seasons (2001 and 2002) show that many of the populations
are small, with only a few individuals, and that older three- and four-pronged
plants were absent from most of the 27 populations (Table 3, page 24). Nine
populations in Kentucky (the State with the largest amount of ginseng harvested)
were found to be expanding slightly, whereas the 12 populations in West Virginia
(the State with the second largest annual harvest) were declining slightly.
Although these rates are only based on two season’s worth of data, Dr. McGraw
speculated that the differences between the populations in the two States
may be due to higher rates of seed production for ginseng in Kentucky (although
lower germination rates), compared to populations in West Virginia. The West
Virginia populations may have been also affected by deer browse (McGraw 2003).
4. Jones
et al. (2003) analyzed 25 years of field data, collected from 115 one-acre
ginseng sites throughout the State of Kentucky, to determine if the ginseng
populations had increased, remained stable, or decreased at these sites.
Using correlation analysis, Dr. Jones determined that 39 sites (34%) had a
high positive correlation coefficient, indicating an increase of populations
over time, whereas 16 sites (14%) showed populations were declining over time.
Analysis of the remaining 60 sites indicated that populations have remained
relatively stable (slightly positive or slightly negative) over time.
5. The
Missouri Department of Natural Resources monitored an average of 370 ginseng
plants for 6 years (Drees 2003). A significant finding from the field study
was that, when the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population
peaked, at least 41% of all ginseng reproduction was aborted due to deer herbivory
(Drees 2003). Repeated grazing of ginseng by deer resulted in a substantial
decline in the percentage of mature plants that produce inflorescences. However,
when the deer population was reduced, the reproductive success of ginseng
improved. The author concluded that repeated deer browse can stress ginseng
populations and result in a substantial decline in the percentage of mature
plants that produce fruit (Drees 2003).
6. Based
on field monitoring data, the maturity of ginseng fruit at the time of root
harvest can significantly affect seed viability and germination (McGraw 2003).
Ginseng monitoring in West Virginia revealed that 75% of ginseng fruits were
still green on August 15, the start of the harvest season in that State.
The field data also showed that the harvest of ginseng roots prior to full
fruit ripening (red fruit) can drive a population’s growth rate below an equilibrium
value of 1.00 (declining population) (McGraw 2003).
7. Furthermore,
the depth at which ginseng seeds are planted directly affects the germination
of seed. Based on field studies the lowest seed germination was recorded
at 0 cm (on the soil surface) and the largest amount of germination was at
a depth of 2.5 cm (1 inch), with rates decreasing thereafter (McGraw 2003a).
8. In
2004, the results of a demographic study of six ginseng populations (510 plants total) in the GSMNP will be published in a scientific
journal (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
The study consisted of monitoring two populations for 4 years (1998-2001) and four populations
for 3 years (1999-2001). According Dr. Gagnon, a significant finding of the
study was that large plant dormancy in ginseng was confirmed for the first
time. Within the six populations, an average of 8% of the plants were dormant
in any year. Most plants emerged after 1 year (with decrease in size); however,
12% remained dormant for 2 years. Overall, seed production was very low,
declining from 1998 to 2000, and averaged 10 seeds per four-pronged plant.
Population growth rates calculated from matrices average 0.997 (declining
populations). Stochastic projections indicated that these
populations are barely maintaining themselves and can not tolerate any harvesting.
According to Dr. Gagnon, large plant dormancy, low seed production, and low
population growth rates appear to be related to droughts during the third
and fourth years of the study (D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers.
comm.).
9. The
genetic diversity of 21 ginseng populations (1,317 plants) consisting of 8
protected sites and 13 unprotected sites in four states (Georgia,
Maryland, North Carolina, and West Virginia) was analyzed (Cruse-Sanders and
Hamrick 2003). The genetic diversity of 21 ginseng populations (1,317 plants)
consisting of 8 protected sites and 13 unprotected sites in four states (Georgia,
Maryland, North Carolina, and West Virginia) was analyzed (Cruse-Sanders and
Hamrick 2003). The researchers found significantly greater genetic diversity
(higher heterozygosity), greater portion of older plants, and larger stage-class
of individuals within protected populations than within populations in which
harvesting had occurred. Genetic structure was significantly greater among
unprotected populations (GST= 0.491) than among protected populations
(GST= 0.167). According to the researchers, the differences in
the level and distribution of genetic diversity in these populations indicate
that harvesting reduces genetic diversity and may have significant evolutionary
implications for this species (Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003).
Alternative ginseng growing methods
Although this finding primarily covers truly wild ginseng,
it also includes ginseng derived from other growing methods used to produce
harvestable roots for export. Unfortunately, consistent terminology for different
growing methods used are not universally applied, and not all States track
these methods or separately report ginseng harvested from such methods (e.g.,
wild-simulated and woods-grown are often included in State harvest data sheets
as wild). We are therefore unable to categorically determine that any of
these alternative methods would qualify as artificial propagation according
to the CITES definition. Without clarification
from individual States, we currently consider ginseng from these alternative
growing methods to be wild when they are from the States covered by this finding,
although we could take a different approach in the future if we can resolve
the inconsistencies involved in the application of these terms.
The two most popular growing methods used for ginseng are
“wild-simulated” and “woods-grown.” We have reviewed available information
on these methods from various sources, including State Cooperative Extension
programs, universities, non-profit organizations,
and public literature. Although we recognized that there may be variation
in the application of these methods, the following information is a brief
summary of these two alternative growing methods.
Wild-simulated ginseng
1. Much of the ginseng harvested as wild-simulated comes
from natural woods in the Appalachian-Allegheny Mountains in parts of Kentucky,
New York, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and West Virginia, and a lesser amount
from the Ozark Plateau of Arkansas and Missouri (URL:
http://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/ginsgold.html
Accessed January 22, 2003).
2. Wild-simulated ginseng is grown in a natural forest
environment with 70%-80% shade, and with minimal site preparation and maintenance
(URL: http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html
Accessed January 22, 2003). Although non-stratified ginseng seed can be planted,
most references recommend planting stratified seed in the fall, after trees
drop their leaves (URL: http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html
Accessed January 22, 2003). Typically, the ground layer of mulch is pulled
back by hand or raked back; the seed is then broadcasted, and covered with
soil and mulch (Beyfuss 1999). Small ginseng transplant roots have also been
reported to be planted under wild-simulated production method.
3. The ginseng plants are usually left to grow naturally,
with occasional vegetation control as necessary (Beyfuss 1999). Pesticides
and fertilizers are applied at the owner’s discretion (Beyfuss 1999).
4. Wild-simulated ginseng grown from
seed is typically harvested at 6-15 years of age (average 9-12 years)
(URL: http://www.mdc.mo.gov/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/;
http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf
Accessed June 23, 2003). In general, harvested roots closely approximate
the appearance of truly wild ginseng roots, such as in color, texture, and shape of
root (URL:http://www.unl.edu/nac/afnotes/ff-4/index.html ; http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf
Accessed January 22, 2003).
Woods-grown ginseng
1. Woods-grown or “woods-cultivated”
ginseng often refers to ginseng grown under a forest canopy with a range in
the amount of human intervention. Typically, large continuous forested areas
that provide 70%-80% natural shade are selected for woods-grown ginseng (Scott
et al. 1995; Beyfuss 1999; URL: http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/
; http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf
; http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html
Accessed January 22, 2003).
2. Much of the literature available
on cultivation of woods-grown ginseng recommend using intensive management
techniques, as described below (Scott et al. 1995; Beyfuss 1999; URL: http://www.conservation.state.mo.us/nathis/plantpage/flora/ginseng/
; http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html
Accessed January 22, 2003).
3. Site preparation for woods-grown
ginseng begins with clearing the understory vegetation and undesirable trees,
shrubs, and large rocks (Scott et al. 1995; Beyfuss 1999; URL: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html
; http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf
; http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/factsheets/ginseng.pdf Accessed January 22, 2003). The soil is tilled
usually 4-8 inches either by a rototiller or by hand (Beyfuss 1999; http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/factsheets/ginseng.pdf Accessed January 22, 2003). Depending on the location,
soil amendments such as limestone, gypsum, and chemical or organic fertilizers
may be added to the soil as necessary (Davis 1997; Beyfuss 1999; Das et al. 2001; URL:http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html
Accessed January 22, 2003).
4. Although non-stratified ginseng
seed can be planted, most references recommend planting stratified seed in
the late summer or fall. A typical application rate is 40-50 pounds per acre
(Scott et al. 1995; Beyfuss 1999). There are approximately 7,000 to 8,000
ginseng seeds per pound (Beyfuss 1999; URL: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newcropsnews/94-4-1/ginseng.html ; Accessed June 23,
2003). To ensure a more uniform stand of plants and to reduce the time from
planting to harvest of roots, some references recommend planting cultivated
seedlings or cultivated transplant roots (rootlets) (Davis 1997; Beyfuss 1999;
Das et al. 2001).
5. Typically, ginseng seed is planted
in beds, which are routinely manually cleaned of competing vegetation (URL:
http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/forestry/354-312/354-312.html
Accessed January 22, 2003). Pesticides are applied for insect, disease, and
rodent control, as necessary (Beyfuss 1999).
6. Typically, woods-grown ginseng from
seed requires 6-8 years to obtain a size suitable for harvesting (Scott et
al. 1995; Davis 1997; Beyfuss 1999; URL:http://www.uky.edu/Ag/NewCrops/introsheets/ginsengintro.pdf
Accessed June 23, 2003). A general “rule of thumb” is that from 100 to
300 dried ginseng roots yield one dried pound of roots (Beyfuss 1999).
New Information on State Regulation of Harvest
1. As
of April 1, 2003, the State of North Carolina will require wild-collected
ginseng plants to be at least 5 years old and have three prongs (leaves) or,
in the absence of leaves, have at least four discernible bud scars plus a
bud on the rhizome. The new State regulation requires harvesters to plant
the seeds of harvested plants within 100 feet of where ginseng is located
in the wild (Rules on Ginseng Collection and Trade in North Carolina. NC
Administration Code Title 2 48F. As submitted to DMA in 2003).
2. The
Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR) will implement the following changes
in their State regulations for the 2003 ginseng harvest season: the harvest
season will start September 1 (instead of August 15) and no harvest will be
allowed on State lands (S. Zook, ODNR, pers. comm.).
3. The Pennsylvania Department
of Conservation and Natural Resources (PDCNR) is in the process of amending
their current ginseng harvest season start date of August 1 to September 1.
According to PDCNR, the new harvest start date should be in effect for the
2004 harvest season (C. Rohrbach, PDCNR, pers. comm.).
Fish and Wildlife Service outreach efforts in 2003
1. We and the Division of Management
Authority held a workshop with State ginseng program
representatives, and other Federal agencies (USFS and APHIS), February
19-21, 2003, in St. Louis, Missouri. Over the course of 3 days, new and ongoing ginseng research
was presented by State, Federal, and university researchers; the status, management,
and conservation of the species was discussed; and general recommendations
were developed by the group. Table 4 (page 25) lists the management issues
and general recommendations, and Table 5 (page 26) contains the trade and
export issues and general recommendations from the workshop.
2. We also held a public meeting on
May 21, 2003,
in Lexington,
Kentucky.
The purpose of the public meeting was to discuss U.S. obligations under CITES related to the export of ginseng,
and to obtain new information on the biological and trade status of the species.
To notify the public of the meeting we published a Federal Register
notice (Vol. 68, No. 78) on April 23, 2003. All State programs were notified in advance of the meeting,
and were encouraged to notify representatives of the ginseng industry in their
States.
3. Attendees included growers,
buyers and dealers, and exporters of ginseng from 12 States. In addition,
representatives from State and other Federal agencies (USFS, and NPS) also
participated. Among the ginseng growers and trade representatives that attended
the meeting, a general consensus was voiced that the current age requirement
(roots must be 5 years of age or older) for
the export of ginseng may not be sufficient to ensure the long-term
survival of the species. There was also acknowledgement amongst the group
that many State harvest seasons start too early, before ginseng fruit is mature,
and should be changed to when the fruit is mature (red). Additionally, there
was a general recommendation that ginseng harvesters need to be better informed
of when and how much to harvest, the correct planting depth for ginseng seeds,
and the potential negative impacts from planting cultivated ginseng seeds
in the wild, such as genetic erosion and introduction of diseases. Several
participants recommended that the ginseng industry should play a greater role
in the conservation and sustainable harvest of ginseng.
4. DSA met with USFS national
resource program directors to discuss ginseng management, harvest, and conservation
issues on National Forest lands.
Conclusions
1. There
is a substantial amount of scientific literature on the concept of minimum
viable population size of plant species needed to buffer the effects of various
types of stochastic risk (demographic, genetic, environmental, habitat loss,
etc.). Several researchers have suggested a minimum viable population size
range for ginseng to be 172 individuals in the most northern portion of the
species’ range (Canada) and up to
500 individuals in the southern portion of its range (GSMNP) (Nantel et al.
1996; D. Gagnon, University of Quebec, pers. comm.).
2. Research
has shown that harvesting of ginseng reduces population size and, as with
most species, small population size reduces genetic diversity, which over
time reduces the species’ ability to adapt to changing or variable environments
(Hackney and McGraw 2000; Anderson 2002; Cruse-Sanders and Hamrick 2003).
Ginseng’s life history traits increase ginseng’s vulnerability to stochastic
risk: small populations, relative long pre-reproductive period (reproductive
plants are at least 4 years), low fecundity and high seed mortality, and short-distance
seed dispersal (seed stays within 2-3 meters of parent plant) (Carpenter and
Cottam 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1982; Lewis and Zenger 1983; Anderson et al.
1984; Schlessman 1985; Charron and Gagnon 1991; Anderson et al. 1993; Van
der Voot 1998; Dunwiddie and Anderson 1999; Anderson 2002).
3. Regardless
of the historical abundance of ginseng, populations have dramatically declined
in the last century, and in some locations populations have been reduced to
a few dozen individuals (Van der Voot 1998). Field surveys of ginseng throughout
portions of its range (Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, North
Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia) have found
that population sizes that would indicate a minimum viable population size
of 172-500 individuals are rarely encountered (Gagnon 1999; Drees 2003; Jones
et al. 2003; Kauffman 2003; McGraw 2003).
4. In
Canada, the species is listed as
“endangered”; in Maine, it is listed as “endangered,” and it is listed as
“threatened” in Michigan. Due to scarcity of the species, several other States
within its range prohibit or discourage the wild-collection of ginseng (Connecticut,
Delaware, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Rhode Island). National Forests
in the States of Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Michigan, New Hampshire, Vermont,
and Wisconsin have prohibited the issuance of harvest permits and have included
the species on the USFS Regional Foresters Sensitive Species list. Several
of the National Forests in the Southern Region have also restricted or reduced
the number of harvest permits issued.
5. We
are concerned that the amount of ginseng harvested may exceed the amount authorized
under USFS collection permits. The USFS collection permits are limited to
1-2 pounds per permit and follow State harvest rules and regulations (harvest
season, age of plants, and planting of seeds). However, once harvest permits
are issued by a NF, there is little oversight or enforcement of these harvest
restrictions. Furthermore, many State harvest seasons start before ginseng
fruit is mature, thereby reducing the number of new recruits. Discussions
with USFS botanists support our suspicion that the amount of wild ginseng
harvested from NF lands most likely exceeds the 1-2 pounds allowed by the
USFS. Additionally, there are concerns that ginseng poaching is occurring
on USFS lands during and outside of State harvest seasons, and that State
harvest season start before ginseng fruit is mature.
6. Harvest
is prohibited on NPS lands; however, ginseng continues to be illegally poached
from NPS (e.g., MCNP, GSMNP).
7.With the exception of six States (Alabama, Iowa, Maryland,
Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Virginia), all of the other States with a wild ginseng
export program do not allow harvest on State lands.
8. Most
States continue to report that they do not have the resources (monetary, personnel,
etc.) to survey State lands to assess the status of the species (e.g.,
abundance, distribution) within their respective States.
9. We are concerned that the Georgia,
Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia harvest
seasons start in August before ginseng fruit is fully mature (red), which
decreases future offspring and recruitment, even if seeds from harvested plants
are planted as required by these States (except Virginia) (Table 6, page 27).
As previously stated in this finding, this will affect the long-term survival
of the species.
10.We are concerned that ginseng harvesters may not be planting
seed at the recommended depth of 1 inch in the soil.
11. Recent
genetic research on ginseng, as well as research discussed in this finding,
has identified several factors, such as planting of non-local or commercial
seed into natural woodlands and the effects of over-harvest of ginseng populations,
which indicate that the species’ long-term genetic diversity and survival
may be affected by such actions.
12. In 1999, under a study funded
by DSA, Dr. Gagnon analyzed the long-term sustainability of ginseng harvested
from the wild and reported that the wild-collection of ginseng is generally
thought to be biologically unsustainable and offers no incentive for species
or habitat conservation (Gagnon 1999).
13. In a recent IUCN assessment
of the conservation and sustainability of ginseng, the paper concluded that
the general consensus points to a reduction and continuing decline of ginseng
populations, and the harvest of smaller wild roots than in previous years
(Rosser and Haywood 2002). The study concluded that the likelihood that ginseng
exports are sustainable may not be high and the system may require more oversight
(Rosser and Haywood 2002).
14.Although the Service does not regulate harvest of ginseng,
only the export, we continue to work with the States and other Federal agencies
(USFS, NPS) that are responsible for managing the species and its habitat
on their lands, and to ensure the long-term viability of the species.
15.Currently, and throughout the past several years, we have:
