To: Chief, Division of Management Authority
From: Chief, Branch of Consultation and Monitoring, Division of Scientific Authority
Subject: Convention Permit Applications for Ginseng Harvested in 2001
This document constitutes our finding on the export of American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L., for the 2001 harvest season.
Please, be advised that, based on our analysis of available information, we find that the export of wild (including wild-simulated) ginseng roots of 5 years of age or older (i.e., with 5 or more bud-scale scars, or with three or more leaves) harvested during the 2001 season in the following States will not be detrimental to the survival of the species: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Furthermore, we find that cultivated ginseng roots (of any age) qualify as artificially propagated (including woods-grown) specimens in accordance with CITES Resolution Conf. 11.11. We make this finding for the export of cultivated ginseng roots and their recognizable parts harvested during the 2001 season in the following States: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
We will continue to monitor the status of American ginseng in the wild, with the understanding that the above finding and associated restrictions may be modified for exports of ginseng harvested in 2002.
BASIS FOR ADVICE
Background
To ensure that Panax quinquefolius remains viable throughout its range in the United States and determine whether export of American ginseng will not be detrimental to the survival of the species, the Division of Scientific Authority (DSA) annually reviews the best currently available information from various sources (other Federal agencies, State regulatory agencies, industry and associations, non-governmental organizations, and academic researchers) on the general status and biology of the species, and specifically for each State from which ginseng roots are exported. This finding is based in part on annual reports from the States submitted to the Division of
Management Authority (e.g., pounds of wild ginseng harvested; average number of roots per pound; average age of harvested plants estimated by counting bud scars or by converting dry eight to age; trends in abundance of wild ginseng populations as measured in field surveys).
Biology of the species
1. Research by Charron and Gagnon (1991) substantiates that ginseng has low seedling recruitment and establishment rates, a relatively long pre-reproductive period (3 years and more), and slow individual growth rate (under forest cover; D. Charron and D. Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium [quinquefolius] (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology, 79:431-445). There is a negative correlation between densities of deer and ginseng plants.
2. Field studies indicate that most ginseng plants start producing seeds when they attain 2 compound leaves (prongs) at 3 to 4 years of age (R. C. Anderson, J. S. Fralish, J. E. Armstrong, and P. K. Benjamin. 1984. Biology of Ginseng, Panex quinquefolius. Illinois Department of Conservation, Division of Forest Resources and Natural Heritage, Springfield, Illinois. 32 pages). Preventing harvest of plants before age 5 should result in up to 3 years of seed production before they are removed from the wild.
3. A demographic study conducted by Dunwiddie and Anderson, on two wild populations of American ginseng in Massachusetts from 1986 to 1996, found that the number of individual plants that produced fruit varied considerably among years, ranging from 0.5% to 33%. In addition, only 25% of the seed germinated (P. W. Dunwiddie and J. E. Anderson. 1999. Germination and survival of seed in wild populations of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) Draft manuscript). However, in experimental field tests where seeds were sown by humans, germination rates were 55-75%. The researchers concluded that low seed production, slow growth, and poor seed dispersal have prevented historically harvested American ginseng populations from expanding to occupy many suitable sites. Research done by J.B. McGraw (Harvest rate and harvest impacts in wild American ginseng. Ginseng Workshop, May 2000) concluded that germination rates are affected by the depth at which seeds are buried: the lowest germination was recorded at 0 cm, and the highest at 2 cm (.78 inches), rates decreased thereafter.
4. Research on the seedling mortality rate of ginseng indicated that mortality is always high; furthermore, the stability of a population is more sensitive to a decrease in the survival rate of large individuals than to a reduction in the production of seeds or in the establishment of seedlings (D. Charron and D. Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium [quinquefolius] (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology: 79: 431-445).
5. Research has shown that the maximum sustainable rate of harvest of any population is the rate at which mean growth rate falls below the equilibrium value of 1.0. For ginseng populations, the maximum sustainable rate of annual harvest resulting in a stable population would be a little more than 5% (P. Nantel, D. Gagnon, and A. Nault. 1995. Population Viability Analysis of American ginseng and wild leek harvested in stochastic environments. Conservation Biology, 10(2):608-621).
6. Staff of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park initiated, in the summer of 1998, a demographic study of several ginseng populations. Field data indicate population growth rates close to 1.0 (i.e., a stable population), suggesting that if the populations are to survive, no harvesting can occur (personal communication from Janet Rock, Botanist, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and Daniel Gagnon, University of Quebec at Montreal, to Dr. Javier Alvarez, DSA biologist).
Protection, Harvest, and Trade
1. Historical harvest records indicate that, from 1821 to 1899, an average of 381,000 pounds of wild root were exported annually (A. W. Anderson. 1986. Ginseng - America’s botanical drug connection to the Orient. Economic Botany, 40:233-249). Exports for 1990-2000 have averaged 111,835 pounds annually. New evidence suggests that, regardless of the historical abundance of American ginseng, in some locations it has been reduced to populations of one to a few dozen individuals (M. E. Van der Voort. 1998. An inventory of wild-harvested plants in the Otter Creek Wilderness Area of the Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia. M.S. thesis. Morgantown, West Virginia).
2. All of the States covered by this finding have been approved previously by the Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) for the export of ginseng, based on their regulation of harvest of wild and/or cultivated ginseng, and for certifying harvested ginseng (including plants, whole roots, and root chunks or slices) for export.
3. The States of Idaho, Maine, Michigan, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington export exclusively artificially propagated ginseng. The States of Maine and Michigan, both within the native range of ginseng, have State laws to protect wild ginseng (proposed as Endangered in Maine and listed as Threatened in Michigan) and allow only the harvest and export of artificially propagated ginseng. The States of Idaho, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington are outside the native range of ginseng. For the majority of States with a wild ginseng harvest program, ginseng harvest is not permitted on State lands.
4. As reported in the 1999 and 2000 findings for ginseng, the quantity of wild-simulated or woods-grown ginseng has increased in the last decade, and 8 of 19 States reported exporting from 2.8 to as much as 2,149 dry pounds in 2000 (Table 1). Wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng is most often reported as "wild," thereby affecting the harvest trend data for particular States. This increase may indicate erroneously that wild populations have remained stable or have increased, thus allowing for a greater harvest. However, it is also possible that the amount of truly wild ginseng being harvested has decreased, potentially due to a host of factors (decreased abundance, decreased harvest effort, imposition of age restrictions on export), since the increase in the amount of wild-simulated ginseng reported appears to be compensating for such a decrease.
5. In the late 1970s, American ginseng roots of wild origin accounted for approximately 30% of the roots exported from North America, primarily to Asian markets. Today, only 3.5% of American ginseng exports are wild-harvested roots; the remaining ginseng is derived from cultivated plants (Uwe Schippman. 2001. CITES Medicinal Plants Significant Trade Study). Nevertheless, the demand for wild ginseng roots remains high due to the preference by Asian consumers for wild roots over cultivated ones. This is reflected in the average price per pound of wild roots, which are 17 to 50 times more expensive than cultivated ones ($250-$500 per pound of wild root versus $10-$15 per pound of cultivated root).
6. In a 1998 survey of ginseng diggers, conducted by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 62% of the respondents (N=171) indicated that they had noticed a decrease in wild ginseng abundance since they started harvesting ginseng. Moreover, 61% of ginseng diggers (N=18) and 77% of ginseng dealers (N=26) responding to a 1998 survey conducted by the Division of Natural Heritage, Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, considered that ginseng populations had declined in the previous 5 years. A majority of Tennessee diggers also noted that they had to search over larger areas and in more places (63% and 59% of respondents, respectively) to find wild ginseng.
7. The National Park Service (NPS) prohibits the harvest of native plants from National Parks; however, poaching of ginseng and other medicinal plants continues to increase, taking place not only in major National Parks (such as Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee/North Carolina; Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky; Shenandoah National Park, Virginia), but also on smaller NPS lands (Blue Ridge Parkway, Appalachian Mountains; Little River Canyon National Preserve, Alabama). In Great Smoky Mountains National Park, encompassing 800 square miles in the core of the species’ range, a total of 10,515 illegally harvested ginseng roots were seized between 1991 and 1999 (J. Rock, J. H. Hornbeck, J. Tietjen, and E. Choberka. 1999. Habitat modeling and protection of American ginseng in Great Smoky Mountains National Park). To combat the illegal harvest of ginseng in Great Smoky Mountains National Park and on other NPS lands within the range of the species, park officials are permanently marking roots of individual plants. The markers change the color of the root, thus causing the roots to be unacceptable for sale.
8. Ginseng poaching is not restricted to Federal and State protected lands, as it also affects private land owners. At a ginseng conference held in Kentucky last year, growers identified illegal harvest of ginseng as a major problem (Ginseng Conference, Louisville, Kentucky, May 9-11, 2000).
9. The State of South Carolina does not have a wild ginseng harvest program; however, it is within the range of American ginseng. Researchers have monitored three ginseng populations located in forests closed to public access since the 1930s, and results have indicated a high proportion of young and/or small plants, but few large individuals are present (average ages for the plants in the three populations were 2.8, 5.0, and 5.6 years; Dr. Timothy P. Spira, Clemson University, South Carolina, Poster Presentation at the International Botanical Congress, St. Louis, Missouri, August 1999).
10. In 1999 and 2000, our non-detriment finding for wild-collected ginseng was based on the condition that only wild ginseng roots 5 years old or older may be exported. The age restriction was implemented in 1999 based on information showing that wild ginseng populations were in decline throughout the species’ range, and the amount of available wild ginseng had decreased in some States during the late 1990s. The application of a 5-year minimum-age restriction was intended to prevent the harvest of ginseng plants before they had the opportunity to reproduce.
Most States with wild ginseng harvest programs (Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin) have regulations to prohibit the harvest of ginseng plants with fewer than three compound leaves (prongs); that is, harvested plants must be at least 5 years old (Table 2). Following implementation of the age-based restriction on the export of ginseng roots in 1999, the number of roots per pound decreased (root size increased) in several States where such information is collected. Again this year, the data show that the number of roots per pound in seven States has decreased, although the number of roots per pound increased in six other States (Table 3). Of the top five exporting States, Virginia and West Virginia showed a decrease in number of roots per pound (12.0% and 17.5%, respectively), and North Carolina and Tennessee showed an increase (11.6% and 8.1%, respectively), but Kentucky does not report this information.
Only three States, Illinois, Kentucky, and North Carolina, do not have State laws designating the minimum number of leaves (i.e., prongs, which indicate the age of the plant) that ginseng plants must have to be harvested. North Carolina and Virginia do not require that the seeds be planted at the time of harvest.
Research and Monitoring
1. The Service, the States, industry, and others are working together to improve monitoring of wild American ginseng, and to better assess the impact of harvest on wild populations of ginseng. To this end, we are working in partnerships with scientific researchers, the States, and other federal agencies (National Park Service, National Forest Service, and U.S. Geological Survey/Biological Resources Division) to establish a long-term nationwide monitoring program for the species. The monitoring program involves the establishment of survey plots across the leading eight States where wild ginseng is currently harvested; plots are being surveyed annually. The data being gathered will be analyzed to determine whether current levels of harvest are sustainable and whether further restrictions on the harvest of wild American ginseng are needed. In the summer of 2000, Dr. Jim McGraw (Plant Population Biologist at West Virginia University) started to implement the monitoring program and to train State ginseng coordinators in the eight States. The monitoring information will be vital to the conservation of American ginseng, including the determination of sustainable levels of harvest.
2. Additional States have indicated that they will begin to monitor their ginseng populations. The State of Maryland has indicated that they will establish monitoring sites to study State populations and harvest trends (Maryland Ginseng Export Report 2000).
3. In addition to monitoring, the Service is also funding research at West Virginia University to examine, among other things, the status of wild American ginseng in West Virginia; the utility of some population indices currently being used by DSA to assess the status of wild populations of ginseng; the importance of the harvest season start date; and the possible effects of deer browsing and dispersal of seeds by deer and turkeys. Preliminary results indicate that current harvest seasons in many States are unrelated to plant phenology and may be detrimental to the long-term survival of the species. Specifically, many States allow harvest of plants before seeds are fully mature, thus reducing the likelihood of seed germination, even if seeds are planted as required by most States.
4. As the demand for ginseng increases, several States are establishing programs for the distribution of seeds from cultivated plants to ginseng diggers as a means of restoring the species in the wild. Ginseng is self-compatible, and field studies have indicated that there is a major genetic divergence in the species (Walter Lewis, and Vincent Zenger. 1983. Breeding systems and fecundity in the American ginseng, Panex quinquefolium (Araliaceae). American Journal of Botany: 70(3): pp. 466-468). Preliminary research done by Holly Grubbs and Martha Case of the College of William and Mary indicates that there is high genetic variability among populations, and low genetic variability within wild American ginseng populations (Ginseng Conference, Louisville, Kentucky May 9-11, 2000). Recent experimental work suggests that local populations are highly adapted to local conditions, and that artificial seeding might lead to local loss of fitness.
5. Socio-economic factors (such as the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, increase in the price of roots, and the prevailing unemployment rate in the United States) may influence demand for and harvest of American ginseng. Research conducted at West Virginia University found a correlation between harvest levels and unemployment (personal communication from Mr. Brent Bailey to Dr. Javier Alvarez, DSA biologist). However, no correlation was found between price and harvest amounts. Biotic and abiotic factors (such as deer browsing and drought), as well as loss of habitat, also have a negative impact on wild ginseng populations.
New information since previous finding
We have actively continued to collect information on the biology and status of the species in the wild to ensure that the continued export of ginseng is not detrimental to the survival of the species, and to determine if additional changes in the ginseng export program would be warranted. For this year's finding, we have obtained the following new information:
1. A review of the annual ginseng harvest reports submitted by State ginseng programs for Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin has revealed the following:
a. Nationwide, total harvest of wild ginseng increased by 13% between 1999 and 2000 (Table 4). This increase was attributed to 11 States (58%), including Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia (the top five leading exporters of wild ginseng in the country). Overall, total harvest of wild ginseng for the 2000 season was 73,308 pounds, compared to 64,725 pounds for the 1999 harvest season (an increase of 8,583 pounds).
b. For three States, the reported increase from 1999 to 2000 was significant: Illinois(82%), Indiana (82%), and Maryland (381%). Maryland was the only State that increased its harvest in 2000 to a level higher than the average annual harvest for the previous 1990-2000 (Table 4).
c. As determined by regression analysis, 13 States experienced a statistically significant decrease in harvest levels during 1990 to 2000 (Table 5). In 17 (89%) of the States, harvest for the 2000 season was below the average annual harvest during the 1990s. In fact, in 11 States (58%) harvest was more than 30% lower in 2000 than the average for the 1990s; this was true for four of the five leading exporters of wild ginseng (Ohio, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia). (Significance for the regression analyses was set at P 0.20 to increase our confidence in the results of the analysis to determine whether harvest trends are increasing or decreasing.)
2. Based on the conservation status ranking system developed by The Nature Conservancy and the National Heritage Network, among States that allow the harvest of American ginseng from the wild, the Association for Biodiversity Information (ABI) ranks the species as follows (from NatureServe: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. 2001. Version 1.4. ABI, Arlington, Virginia, USA. Available at natureserve.org; accessed July 12, 2001):
"imperiled/vulnerable" (S2/S3): Vermont
"vulnerable" (S3): Georgia, Illinois (S3?), Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, and Minnesota
"vulnerable/apparently secure" (S3/S4): Tennessee
"apparently secure" (S4): Alabama, Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Among States where the species is found in the wild, but where harvest of wild ginseng is not allowed, ABI ranks ginseng as:
"critically imperiled" (S1): Nebraska, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Rhode Island, and South Dakota
"imperiled" (S2): Delaware, Maine, New Hampshire, and New Jersey
"imperiled/vulnerable" (S2/S3): Michigan and South Carolina
"vulnerable" (S3): Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Mississippi
"State reported" (SR)*: Kansas, Ohio
A ranking of SR indicates that reports were received from the States, but without persuasive documentation to assign a ranking. None of the states that allow the harvest of wild ginseng roots received a rating of "secure" (S5), which would indicate that wild populations of American ginseng are stable.
3. The U.S. Forest Service has a legal obligation (36 CFR 219.27) to assure the continued viability of American ginseng on National Forest Service lands.
a. Due to concerns of over-harvest and the decline of ginseng, the U.S. Forest Service Eastern Region (R-9) included American ginseng on the R-9 Sensitive Plant List for the following National Forests (NF) and Grasslands (personal communication, Christine Frisbee, Regional Plant Ecologist for the Eastern Region, April 23, 2001): Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie, Illinois; Chequamegon-Nicolet NF, Wisconsin; Green Mountain NF, Vermont; Hoosier NF, Indiana; Huron and Manistee NF, Michigan; Ottawa NF, Michigan and Wisconsin; Shawnee NF, Illinois; and White Mountain NF, New Hampshire and Massachusetts. (For the Hoosier NF, the number of permits increased almost 300% from 1993 [176 permits] to 1996 [519 permits]).
b. The purpose of the Forest Service Regional Sensitive Plant List is to protect rare species and their habitats before there is a need to list species as threatened or endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Listed plant species are vulnerable due to low population levels or significant threats to habitat. Collection permits are only issued for scientific or educational purposes, or for the conservation or propagation of the species (Forest Service Manual 2673.2(2)).
c. The Forest Service Eastern Region issues permits for the harvest of American ginseng plants at least 5 years of age or older for the following Forests:
Mark Twain NF, Missouri; Monongahela NF, West Virginia; and the Wayne NF, Ohio.
The State of Pennsylvania issues permits for the Allegheny NF.
d. The following R-9 National Forests do not have known populations of American ginseng; therefore, no permits are issued:
Chippewa and Superior NF, Minnesota; Finger Lakes NF, New York; and Hiawatha NF, Wisconsin.
4. The U.S. Forest Service Southern Region (R-8) considered a temporary moratorium on the harvest of wild ginseng because collection rates may be exceeding sustainable levels. Forest Service "studies indicate viability concerns with continued harvest of this [American ginseng] uncommon species" (U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region. Forest Botanical Products Maintaining Sustainability and Responding to Socio-Economic Needs in the Southern Appalachians. 2000). However, Forest Service R-8 has decided to collect more field data on the status of the species before initiating any closure on the harvest of ginseng (personal communication, Wayne Owen, Regional Plant Ecologist for the Southern Region, April 19, 2001). Within R-8, National Forests in North Carolina represent 1/4 of the species’ core range in the state (1,245,707 acres); 600 permits were issued in 2000 versus 400 permits issued in 1999 (Gary Kauffman, R-8 Forest Service botanist, November 2000).
a. Nevertheless, the Ozark-St. Francis National Forest in Arkansas, as of May 2000, established a 5-year moratorium on the harvest of ginseng to prevent further declines in abundance and until field data indicate that wild populations can sustain harvesting www.fs.fed.us
b. Additionally, the Ouachita NF in Arkansas does not issue permits for the harvest of ginseng.
5. The George Washington and Jefferson National Forests comprise 1,646,328 acres in Virginia, 123,384 acres in West Virginia, and 961 acres in Kentucky. The combined total of 1.8 million acres is represented by ten ranger districts, of which only one ranger district (Glenwood/Pedlar in Virginia) representing 90,000 acres will issue permits for the 2001 harvest season (personal communication, Fred Huber, GWNF, July 18, 2001).
6. The following National Forests in R-8 will issue permits for the 2001 ginseng harvest season: Chattahocheet and Oconee NF, Georgia; Daniel Boone NF, Kentucky; Croatan NF, Nantahala NF, Pisgah NF, and Uwharrie NF, North Carolina, and Cherokee NF, Tennessee.
7. Last year the Daniel Boone NF, located in the core of the species’ range, restricted collection permits for ginseng to one pound of green root, and started the harvest season on September 1 (2 weeks later than in previous years). This National Forest is also requiring roots to be at least 5 years of age. (The Lady-Slipper. 2000. Kentucky Native Plant Society. No. 15:2/3).
8. Many of R-8 (Daniel Boone NF, Croatan NF, Nantahala NF, Pisgah NF, and Uwharrie NF) and R-9 (Mark Twain NF, Monongahela NF, and Wayne NF) National Forests are within the core range of American ginseng. Monitoring data in R-8 suggest that 95% of populations on National Forest Service lands have significant persistence risks (Ginseng Conservation Needs in R8, 2000).
9. The U.S. Forest Service in North Carolina has implemented a marking program, similar to that used by the National Park Service, to curtail the illegal poaching of ginseng in wilderness and other protected areas (National Forest in North Carolina, August 29, 2000).
10. Recently, the Appalachian Ginseng Foundation of Kentucky identified American ginseng poaching to be a major threat to private landowners and public wooded lands (Appalachian Ginseng Foundation Newsletter, 2001, No.6).
11. A 20-year monitoring study of 2,000 permanent plots on Forest Service Southern Region Forests has found that occupied ginseng plots averaged fewer than 11 ginseng individuals, including all age classes, and that an average of 6.5 plants per plot were located across the landscape within the entire suitable habitat for the species (Steve Simon, Henry McNab, Chris Ulrey, and Gary Kauffman. 2000. Modeling for rich cove forest communities: A treasure trove for special forest products. Excerpts from USFS R8 publication "The Brier Patch." E-mail received 01/12/01).
Furthermore, a statistically significant decline in the density of ginseng plants was observed, from 29.8 plants/plot in 1979 to 5.7 plants/plot in 1999 (based on seven 50-m X 50-m plots). Moreover, population viability analysis of the 5 populations with plants remaining in 1999 suggested that at least three of the five populations were likely to be extirpated within the next 13 years. Modeling of ginseng populations in North Carolina indicated that ginseng has been completely extirpated from one-third of its historic sites. Remaining ginseng patches are smaller and composed of younger individuals. Based on historical harvest records, the quantity of ginseng available in some North Carolina counties has declined by more than a factor of 100 since the mid-19th century (Robert D. Sutter and Gary Kauffman. 2000. Ginseng’s fate: An assessment of the ecological and socio-economic viability of ginseng on U.S. Forest Service land in North Carolina. Unpublished draft report to the U.S. Forest Service in North Carolina).
12. Examination by West Virginia University researchers of 915 herbarium specimens, deposited in 17 herbaria across the country and collected randomly over a period of 186 years, revealed a significant decrease in the height of the plants, most of it occurring since 1900 (J. B. McGraw. 2001. Evidence for decline in stature of American ginseng plants from herbarium specimens. Biological Conservation 98:25-32). This reduction in plant size was region-specific, with specimens from a northern portion of the species' range in North America remaining the same size, whereas specimens from the core of the species’ range (the midwestern, Appalachian, and southern populations) declined in size. Researchers have found that the number of ginseng specimens collected for herbaria also declined during the 20th century, whereas the number of specimens of other closely related species remained the same or increased (personal communication from Kathryn Flinn, Department of Biology, The College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, to Dr. Javier Alvarez, DSA biologist).
13. An experimental analysis of ginseng populations of different sizes by West Virginia University researchers has shown that fruit production per flower and per plant increases with increasing population size (E. E. Hackney and J. B. McGraw. 2001. Experimental Demonstration of an Allee Effect in American Ginseng. Conservation Biology: Vol. 15, No.1, pp. 129-136). In addition, when the largest plants from a population are removed, the effect is to influence the ability of the population to recover by removing reproductive potential. Several other studies have shown that a low number of offspring produced correlates with age and size of the population, and is regulated by the availability of resources (W. H. Lewis and V. E. Zenger. 1982. Population dynamics of the American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) (Araliaceae). American Journal of Botany: 70(3):pp. 466-468 and M. A. Schlessman. 1985. Floral biology of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium). Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club: Vol.112:129-133.)
14. Three States reported that current levels of harvest of wild American ginseng are or may be causing negative impacts to their wild populations. The ginseng coordinator for the State of Virginia reported that current levels of harvest of wild ginseng are having a negative effect on the State’s ginseng population. The ginseng coordinator for the State of North Carolina stated, "the effect of the current ginseng harvest levels on North Carolina’s wild ginseng populations: probably negative but the figures don’t support such an assessment." She further stated that "while the roots-per-pound average is worrisomely higher for 2000 season, no trend can be extracted from the fluctuating figures of the past several years." The State of Georgia’s ginseng coordinator stated, "It is my opinion that current levels of ginseng harvest may be causing negative impacts to local populations, but that there is no clear evidence of an overall decline in ginseng abundance statewide."
Program Coordinators for four States, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, and Ohio, reported that the effects of current levels of harvest of wild American ginseng on their wild populations were unknown (Table 6).
The State of Wisconsin reported in its annual Export Harvest Report for 2000 that a number of small roots, "too small to be exported, are being replanted on private lands to be later harvested and most likely counted as woods grown." The report continues that the quantity of under-age roots harvested "likely includes several hundred each year, the exact figure is not known or small roots are sold under small retail sales domestically." State officials in Wisconsin have also reported concern about the possibility that wild-simulated or woods-grown ginseng is being included with wild-collected ginseng. The State reported a 53% increase in the number of pounds harvested for the 2000 season as compared to the 1999 season.
15. We have been informed that by the 2002 harvest season the State of North Carolina may have a law designating the minimum number of leaves and the requirement that seeds be planted at time of harvest (personal communication, Marjorie Boyer, July 11, 2001). The State of Virginia will also initiate a review of their program (personal communication, Keith Tignor, July 17, 2001).
Conclusions
In reviewing the information for this finding, we continue to be concerned about the impact on the species of harvest of American ginseng from the wild for both export and domestic use, and we will continue to closely monitor information on the status of this species in the wild and trade in it. However, we are currently unable to quantify the impact of harvest on wild populations with any accuracy, and must therefore ascertain the impact through indirect means. Although there is ongoing concern about the status of wild populations, we note that there are several factors to balance these concerns:
1. For more than half of the States with harvest programs for wild ginseng, the 2000 harvest levels were below those for the previous 10 years.
2. An increasing amount of ginseng exported as "wild" is actually wild-simulated or woods-grown, which appears to be inflating the harvest data for truly wild ginseng. It is possible that the amount of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng is even higher than the amounts reported, since all States do not separate these from truly wild ginseng in their reports, and they are indistinguishable through visual inspection.
3. The majority of States with a wild ginseng harvest program do not allow harvest on State lands. Harvest is similarly prohibited in National Parks and in an increasing number of National Forests, representing significantly large areas in the species’ range. While we acknowledge that ginseng on these lands is subject to illegal harvest, we also know that efforts are being made to address these problems (e.g., marking of roots), and therefore these lands increasingly serve as refugia for the species. It appears that additional closures of National Forests to ginseng harvest may be forthcoming.
4. Diggers are discouraged from removing plants from the wild before they have reproduced, due to the 5-year minimum-age rule. Some States have reported a decrease in the number of roots per pound (i.e., an increase in root size) of exported ginseng, indicating that younger plants are not being harvested, as was intended by application of the 5-year minimum-age condition on exports.
5. Monitoring of American ginseng and study to evaluate the sustainability of continued harvest is underway, and we should be obtaining some initial trend data this year.
6. A persistent seed bank provides some resiliency to the species.
Therefore, we have concluded that the 2001 American ginseng harvest for export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species, provided the following CONDITION is met:
American ginseng roots harvested in 2001 and certified by the States as wild or wild-simulated may be exported provided that the roots are 5 years of age or older. (Age of ginseng roots at the time of harvest can be determined by counting the number of bud-scale scars on the root, as described in Attachment 1. A single scar is produced after abscission of the plants’ aerial stem each autumn.)
NOTE: In preparation for making our non-detriment finding on exports of American ginseng in 2002, we will be communicating our concerns to Federal and State agencies that are involved in the monitoring, protection, and regulation of harvest of American ginseng. We will also be seeking up-to-date information on the status of the species, including additional protections afforded to it, and discussing and recommending, as appropriate, specific additional measures that may contribute to conservation of the species and sustainable harvest of ginseng for export. Specifically:
1. We will be asking the States to submit their annual reports by April 30, 2002, so we can do an earlier assessment, with follow-up as necessary, to determine if any changes to the export program might be warranted.
2. We will work with Federal, State, and private-sector partners to investigate other means for expanding efforts to monitor the status of ginseng in the wild and determine sustainable harvest levels.
3. We will strongly encourage the two Forest Service Regions, R-8 and R-9, to continue to review their policies and management of American ginseng and to ensure that diggers are in compliance with permit terms and conditions. We will consult with R-8 especially to determine their basis for the continued issuance of collection permits.
4. To prevent the harvest of pre-reproductive ginseng and ensure its long-term survival in the wild, we will encourage States without a minimum-age/size requirement for harvest to consider implementing one that is consistent with the 5-year minimum-age requirement for export.
5. We will consult with the States and encourage them to revise their ginseng harvest regulations, as necessary, to delay the beginning of the harvest season until after the ginseng seed has matured, preferably no earlier than September 15 each year. We will also encourage them to require the planting of seed from plants as they are harvested, and to provide recommendations to ginseng diggers on how to plant seed for optimal germination (see 6.).
6. We will work with State and Federal agencies to determine where additional outreach might be effective, and if determined to be useful, develop outreach materials for ginseng diggers, which may be used to educate them about the status of ginseng, discourage harvest of young roots (under 5 years of age), encourage them to plant seed appropriately, and provide other information that may be useful to them.
7. To improve our monitoring of harvest, we will encourage additional States to report dry roots per pound values in their annual ginseng reports to us, and we will continue to evaluate this data as an indicator of the impact of harvest on wild ginseng populations.
8. We will discuss with the States the use of non-local seed for restoration of ginseng. Although we support, in principle, the idea of restoration as a conservation measure for wild ginseng, we are greatly concerned about the origin of the seeds used for restoration and the impact that non-local seed may have on local gene pools of wild populations of American ginseng, especially if seed is from artificially propagated, selected strains. We are especially concerned about States where the species is considered threatened or endangered (e.g., Michigan and Maine), where random planting of non-local seed may have an even greater adverse effect on local gene pools of this species.
9. We have also noted that there is a substantial amount of harvested roots that are not certified (Table 7). The States do not explain the reason for the difference (such as whether such roots did not meet the minimum 5-year age requirement), and we will consult with them to determine how such discrepancies occur and what implications they have for ginseng conservation.
10. We will encourage additional States to develop a process for separately reporting the quantities of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng versus wild-harvested ginseng for export. As noted above, the increase in the quantity of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng, and the interest of landowners in growing wild-simulated ginseng, may affect harvested amounts reported and affect the harvest trends for a particular State by masking the actual changes in harvest levels for truly wild ginseng. Furthermore, these categories of roots are not readily distinguishable from each other (truly wild versus wild-simulated versus woods-grown) by port inspectors, which represents an enforcement concern. Therefore, in future years all of these categories will be considered "wild" for CITES purposes, since none qualify to be treated as artificially propagated under CITES requirements for such a designation.
11. We will consider and discuss with the States and Federal land-management agencies the possibility of increasing the minimum age of roots for harvest, to ensure that plants are allowed to reproduce adequately before harvest.
Last Updated: August 22, 2006
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