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U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, International Affairs

August 16, 2002
To: Chief, Division of Management Authority
From: Chief, Division of Scientific Authority /s/Roddy Gabel
Subject: Convention Permit Applications for Ginseng Harvested in 2002
This document constitutes our finding on the export of American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L., for the 2002 harvest season.
Please, be advised that, based on our analysis of available information, we find that the export of wild (including wild-simulated and woods-grown) ginseng roots of 5 years of age or older (i.e., with 5 or more bud-scale scars, or with three or more compound leaves or prongs) harvested during the 2002 season in the following States will not be detrimental to the survival of the species: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Furthermore, we find that cultivated ginseng roots (of any age) qualify as artificially propagated specimens in accordance with CITES Resolution Conf. 11.11. We make this finding for the export of cultivated ginseng roots and their recognizable parts harvested during the 2002 season in the following States: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
We will continue to monitor the status of American ginseng in the wild, with the understanding that the above finding and associated restrictions may be modified for exports of ginseng harvested in 2003.
BASIS FOR ADVICE
Background
To ensure that American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) remains viable throughout its range in the United States and to determine whether the export of American ginseng will not be detrimental to the survival of the species, the Division of Scientific Authority (DSA) annually reviews available information from various sources (other Federal agencies, State regulatory agencies, industry and associations, non-governmental organizations, and academic researchers) on the status and biology of the species, and specifically for each State from which American ginseng roots are exported. This finding is based in part on annual harvest reports from the States submitted to the Division of Management Authority (e.g., pounds of wild ginseng harvested; average number of roots per pound; trends in abundance of wild American ginseng populations as measured in field surveys).
Export of American ginseng from all of the States covered by this finding has previously been found to be not detrimental to the survival of the species by the Division of Scientific Authority based on their regulation of harvest of wild and/or cultivated American ginseng. For the majority of States with a wild American ginseng harvest program, harvest is not permitted on State lands.
The States of Idaho, Maine, Michigan, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington export exclusively artificially propagated American ginseng. The States of Maine and Michigan, both within the native range of ginseng, have State laws to protect wild American ginseng (proposed as Endangered in Maine and listed as Threatened in Michigan) and allow only the harvest and export of artificially propagated American ginseng. The States of Idaho, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington are outside the native range of American ginseng.
Biology and ecology of the species
Research by Charron and Gagnon (1991) shows that American ginseng has low seedling recruitment and establishment rates, a relatively long pre-reproductive period (3 years and more), and slow individual growth rate under forest cover (D. Charron and D. Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium [quinquefolius] (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology, 79:431-445). All of these demographic characteristics indicate that American ginseng is a species of stable habitats, such as the understory of mid-successional to late-successional deciduous forests seedlings (D. Charron and D. Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium [quinquefolius] (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology, 79:431-445).
Field studies indicate that, typically, American ginseng plants start producing seeds when plants attain 2 compound leaves (prongs) at 3 to 4 years of age (R. C. Anderson, J. S. Fralish, J. E. Armstrong, and P. K. Benjamin. 1984. Biology of Ginseng, Panax quinquefolius. Illinois Department of Conservation, Division of Forest Resources and Natural Heritage, Springfield, Illinois. 32 pages).
Although American ginseng may form a seed bank, the number of seeds is probably small and seed viability is of short duration (D. Charron and D. Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium [quinquefolius] (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology, 79:431-445). Research on the seedling mortality rate of American ginseng has found that mortality is always high, and that the stability of a population is more sensitive to a decrease in the survival rate of large individuals than to a reduction in the production of seeds or in the establishment of seedlings (D. Charron and D. Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium [quinquefolius] (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology, 79:431-445).
A ten-year demographic study conducted by Dunwiddie and Anderson, on two wild populations of American ginseng in Massachusetts from 1986 to 1996, found that the number of individual plants that produced fruit varied considerably among years, ranging from 0.5% to 33% (P. W. Dunwiddie and J. E. Anderson. 1999. Germination and survival of seed in wild populations of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.). Draft manuscript). However, only 25% of the seed germinated. In contrast, in experimental field tests where seeds were sown by humans, germination rates were 55-75%. The researchers concluded that low seed production, slow growth, and poor seed dispersal have prevented historically harvested American ginseng populations from expanding to occupy other suitable sites. Research done by Dr. James McGraw (Harvest rate and harvest impacts in wild American ginseng. Ginseng Workshop, May 2000) concluded that germination rates are affected by the depth at which seeds are buried: the lowest germination was recorded at 0 cm, and the highest at 2 cm (.78 inches), rates decreased thereafter. To improve the germination success of American ginseng, Dr. McGraw’s research recommended that ginseng harvesters plant seed at 2 cm, or no more than 1 inch in depth.
Researchers have determined that the minimum population size required for American ginseng to remain viable is 172 plants (P. Nantel, D. Gagnon, and A. Nautel. 1995. Population Viability Analysis of American ginseng and wild leek harvested in stochastic environments. Conservation Biology, 10(2):608-621). This number includes plants of all size-classes, distributed among the different size-classes according to a normal (stable) size-distribution pattern. Furthermore, research has demonstrated that the maximum sustainable rate of harvest of many herbaceous plant populations, including American ginseng, is the rate at which mean growth rate varies little from the equilibrium value of 1.00 (population stability or maintenance) (D. Charron and D. Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium [quinquefolius] (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology, 79:431-445). Moreover, the maximum sustainable rate of annual harvest for American ginseng to maintain stable populations has been determined to be a little more than 5% (P. Nantel, D. Gagnon, and A. Nautel. 1995. Population Viability Analysis of American ginseng and wild leek harvested in stochastic environments. Conservation Biology, 10:608-621). For example, a wild population of 172 plants consisting of individuals in all size-classes (0= seedlings to 4= four-leaved plants), would have approximately 55 plants of size-classes 3 and 4. A harvest of 5% of the larger sized plants would yield 2.9 or 3 plants per year, therefore leaving approximately 52 plants of the larger size classes.
However, field research has shown that American ginseng populations that are harvested have no plants of size-class 4 (four-leaved plants), and few or no plants of size-class 3 (three-leaved plants). Usually, only small plants are left (seedlings, one-leaved and two-leaved plants) (D. Gagnon. 1999. An analysis of the sustainability of American Ginseng harvesting from the wild: The problem and possible solutions. USFWS).
Staff of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park initiated in the summer of 1998 a demographic study of six ginseng populations. Based upon field data collected and analyzed, population growth rates were close to 1.0 (i.e., a stable population), which indicated that, for the populations to remain viable, no harvesting could occur (personal communication from Janet Rock, Botanist, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and Daniel Gagnon, University of Quebec at Montreal, to Dr. J. Alvarez, DSA biologist).
NatureServe is a non-profit organization that compiles and assesses data on plants, animals, and ecological communities collected by the 50 State Natural Heritage Programs. Based on the conservation status ranking system developed by NatureServe, within the 19 States that allow the harvest of American ginseng from the wild, the species was ranked as shown in Table 1 (from NatureServe: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. 2001. Version 1.4. Arlington, Virginia, USA. Available at http://www.natureserve.org/; accessed July 18, 2002). None of the States that allow the harvest of wild American ginseng roots received a rating of secure (S5), which would indicate that wild populations of the species are stable (typically more than 100 occurrences, and more than 10,000 individuals).
Table 1. Conservation status of American ginseng in the United States.

* Explanation of NatureServe ranking system is the following:
Critically imperiled (S1): Typically 5 or fewer occurrences, or fewer than 1,000 individuals.
Imperiled (S2): Typically 6 to 20 occurrences with few remaining individuals (1,000 to 3,000).
Vulnerable (S3): Typically 21 to 100 occurrences, with 3,000 to 10,000 individuals.
Apparently secure (S4): Typically 100 occurrences with more than 10,000 individuals; the species is considered uncommon but not rare.
SR indicates that reports were received from the States, but without persuasive documentation to assign a ranking.
+ Rank in Export Volume:
State rank is determined by the total pounds (dry weight) of American ginseng harvested in each State during the 2001 harvest season.
Among States where the species is found in the wild, but where harvest of wild American ginseng is not allowed, NatureServe ranks the species as:
critically imperiled (S1): Nebraska, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Rhode Island, and South Dakota.
imperiled (S2): Delaware, Maine, New Hampshire, and New Jersey.
imperiled/vulnerable (S2/S3): Michigan and South Carolina.
vulnerable (S3): Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Mississippi.
State reported (SR): Kansas.
Using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) genetic analysis, researchers found that sampled wild populations of American ginseng in Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina, and several cultivated specimens were genetically diverse and different from each other (C. L. Boehm et al. 1999. Journal American Society Horticulture Science 124: 252-256). Furthermore, they found that specimens from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park appeared to have a unique genetic integrity and may represent a distinct center of genetic diversity as displayed with the coordination of genetic values calculated with RAPD bands. However, the research also demonstrated that wild specimens of American ginseng collected in Pennsylvania displayed low genetic diversity and similarity to cultivated specimens of American ginseng. The researchers concluded that their study suggests that, in areas with a history of ginseng harvest, wild ecotypes may be mixed with cultivated varieties.
Protection, Harvest, and Trade
Historical harvest records indicate that, from 1821 to 1899, an average of 381,000 pounds of wild American ginseng root were exported annually (A. W. Anderson. 1986. Ginseng: America’s botanical drug connection to the Orient. Economic Botany, 40:233-249). Exports for 1992-2001 have averaged 104,261 pounds (an estimated 31,278,300 plants) annually. Field studies suggest that, regardless of the historical abundance of American ginseng, in some locations it has been reduced to populations of one to a few dozen individuals (M. E. Van der Voort. 1998. An inventory of wild-harvested plants in the Otter Creek Wilderness Area of the Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia. M.S. thesis. Morgantown, West Virginia).
American ginseng is designated as "Threatened" in Canada, and no exportation of wild-harvested ginseng roots is allowed. Harvest is no longer permitted in Maine and Michigan due to declines in wild populations. As stated previously, declines have been documented in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, USFS lands, and throughout many areas within the species’ range including Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
In the late 1970s, American ginseng roots of wild origin accounted for approximately 30% of the roots exported from North America, primarily to Asian markets. Today, only 3.5% of American ginseng exports are wild-harvested roots. The remaining American ginseng is derived from cultivated plants (Uwe Schippman. 2001. CITES Medicinal Plants Significant Trade Study). Nevertheless, the demand for wild American ginseng roots remains high due to the preference by Asian consumers for wild roots over cultivated ones. Although the price per pound for wild-collected American ginseng roots harvested in 2001 ($200-$265 per pound) was lower than in previous years, wild roots continue to average 17 to 50 times more expensive than cultivated roots ($10-$15 per pound of cultivated root).
As reported in the 1999, 2000, and 2001 findings for the export of American ginseng, the quantity of wild-simulated or woods-grown ginseng has increased in the last decade. For the 2001 American ginseng harvest, only two States separately reported amounts of harvested wild-simulated or woods-grown American ginseng as compared to three States for the 2000 harvest season. The total amount reported for the 2001 harvest season was 1,193 dry pounds, compared to 3,091 dry pounds reported in 2000, a reduction of 1,898 pounds (Table 2). However, most States do not separately report wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng from "wild," thereby potentially affecting the harvest trend data for those States. The effects of reporting the quantities together may indicate erroneously that wild populations within the particular State have remained stable or have increased. However, it is also possible that the amount of truly wild American ginseng being harvested has decreased, potentially due to a host of factors (decreased abundance, decreased harvest effort, imposition of age restrictions on export), since the increase in the amount of wild-simulated ginseng reported appears to be compensating for such a decrease. Furthermore, we have been informed that a number of ginseng diggers harvest small-size wild American ginseng roots to be replanted in other areas. The removal of young plants from a particular site will reduce the amount of seed produced and future recruitment of individuals to the site.
In its annual ginseng harvest report for 2001, the State of Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (WDNR) reported the results of a 2002 survey of ginseng dealers within the State. The survey asked what possible methods could be implemented to help conserve American ginseng in the wild. Of the 11 surveys returned, conservation measures suggested by the respondents included "limit harvest to 8 to 10 year old" [plants], "close the [harvest] season for one or more years," "shorten digging season for a couple of years," and "keep educating diggers to replant wild seed and stop digging roots under 5 years." Similarly, in a 1998 survey of ginseng diggers, conducted by the WDNR, 62% of the respondents (N=171) indicated that they had noticed a decrease in wild ginseng abundance since they started harvesting ginseng. Moreover, 61% of ginseng diggers (N=18) and 77% of ginseng dealers (N=26) responding to a 1998 survey conducted by the Division of Natural Heritage, Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, considered that ginseng populations had declined in the previous 5 years. A majority of diggers in Tennessee also noted that they had to search over larger areas and in more places (63% and 59% of respondents, respectively) to find wild ginseng.
The National Park Service (NPS) prohibits the harvest of native plants from National Parks. However, poaching of ginseng and other native plants continues to increase, taking place not only in major National Parks (such as Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee/North Carolina; Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky; Shenandoah National Park, Virginia), but also on smaller National Parks (Blue Ridge Parkway, Appalachian Mountains; Little River Canyon National Preserve, Alabama). In the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, encompassing 800 square miles (512,000 acres) in the core of the species’ range, 10,515 illegally harvested ginseng roots were seized between 1991 and 1999 (J. Rock, J. H. Hornbeck, J. Tietjen, and E. Choberka. 1999. Habitat modeling and protection of American ginseng in Great Smoky Mountains National Park). To combat the illegal harvest of American ginseng in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Shenandoah National Park, and the Blue Ridge Parkway, park officials are permanently marking roots of individual plants. The markers change the color of the root, thus causing the roots to be unacceptable for sale. American ginseng poaching is not restricted to Federal and State protected lands, as it also affects private land owners (Ginseng Conference, Louisville, Kentucky, May 9-11, 2000).
Due to concerns of over-harvest and the decline of American ginseng, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS) Eastern Region (R-9) in 1999 included Panax quinquefolius on the R-9 Sensitive Plant List for the following National Forests (NF) and Grasslands: Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie, Illinois; Chequamegon-Nicolet NF, Wisconsin; Green Mountain NF, Vermont; Hoosier NF, Indiana; Huron and Manistee NF, Michigan; Ottawa NF, Michigan and Wisconsin; Shawnee NF, Illinois; and White Mountain NF, New Hampshire and Massachusetts (personal communication from Christine Frisbee, USFS R-9, to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
The purpose of the USFS Regional Sensitive Plant List is to protect rare species and their habitats before there is a need to list species as Threatened or Endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Listed plant species are vulnerable due to low populations. Collection permits are only issued for scientific or educational purposes, or for the conservation or propagation of the species (Forest Service Manual 2673.2(2)).
Allegheny NF (Pennsylvania) and Mark Twain NF (Missouri) do not have a formal policy on the issuance of American ginseng harvest permits. However, the issuance of such permits is discouraged (personal communication from USFS R-9 to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
Only two National Forests within the Eastern Region continue to issue permits for the harvest of American ginseng roots: Monongahela NF (West Virginia) and Wayne NF (Ohio). The Wayne NF issued 113 permits in 2001 (personal communication from USFS R-9 personal to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
The Chippewa NF (Minnesota), Finger Lakes NF (New York), and Hiawatha NF (Wisconsin) are within the range of American ginseng. However, they do not have any documented populations of the species. Therefore, no permits are issued.
Many of the USFS Southern Region National Forests are within the core range of American ginseng. In 2000, the Southern Region (R-8) considered a temporary moratorium on the harvest of wild American ginseng due to concerns that collection rates were thought to be exceeding sustainable levels. Data from field monitoring of American ginseng conducted in the Southern Region National Forests "indicate viability concerns with continued harvest of this [American ginseng] uncommon species" (U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region. 2000. Forest Botanical Products Maintaining Sustainability and Responding to Socio-Economic Needs in the Southern Appalachians). Furthermore, monitoring data within the Southern Region determined that 95% of the American ginseng populations on USFS lands have significant persistence risks (U.S. Forest Service, Southern Region. 2000. Ginseng Conservation Needs in R8.). However, the moratorium was not imposed. In 2002, the USFS implemented a conservation assessment of American ginseng throughout most of the species’ range within the Eastern and Southern Regions, on USFS lands. The USFS will use the information in the conservation assessment to develop management recommendations for American ginseng on USFS lands. The completion date for the conservation assessment is scheduled for spring of 2003 (personal communication from Christine Frisbee, USFS R-9, to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
Within the USFS Southern Region, several individual National Forests have implemented harvest restrictions. As of 2000, the Ozark-St. Francis and the Ouachita National Forests in Arkansas established a 5-year moratorium on the harvest of ginseng to prevent further declines in abundance and until field data indicate that wild populations can sustain harvesting (http://www.fs.fed.us/oonf/ozark/new/ginseng-letter.html). The George Washington and Jefferson National Forests, comprising a total of 1,770,673 acres in Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky, are represented by ten ranger districts, of which only one ranger district (Glenwood/Pedlar in Virginia) is reported to issue permits. In 2001, 32 permits were issued, each for 2 pounds of wet roots (personal communication from USFS R-8 Fred Huber to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
The following National Forests in the USFS Southern Region issued permits for the 2001 American ginseng harvest season: Chattahocheet NF in Georgia issued 11 ginseng permits; the Daniel Boone NF in Kentucky issued 22 one-pound permits, one for 2 pounds, and one for three pounds; and the Cherokee NF in Tennessee issued 67.5 one-pound permits (personal communication from USFS to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
Most of the American ginseng monitoring studies conducted in the USFS Southern Region have occurred in the Nantahala and Pisgah National Forests in North Carolina. Although USFS field-monitoring data show that American ginseng is declining in these National Forests, the issuance of harvest permits has increased over a three-year period. In 2001, 787 permits were issued, versus 600 in 2000 and 400 in 1999 (personal communication from Gary Kauffman to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
To curtail the illegal poaching of ginseng in wilderness and other protected areas the USFS in North Carolina has implemented a marking program similar to that used by the National Park Service (personal communication from Gary Kauffman to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
Research and Monitoring
The Service, the States, industry, and others are working together to improve monitoring of wild American ginseng, and to better assess the impact of harvest on wild populations of ginseng. To this end, we are working in partnerships with scientific researchers, the States, and other Federal agencies (National Park Service, U.S. Forest Service, and U.S. Geological Survey/Biological Resources Division) to establish a long-term monitoring program for the species. For the past three summers (2000 to 2002), Dr. James McGraw (Plant Population Researcher at West Virginia University) has implemented a monitoring program across the leading seven States where wild American ginseng is harvested, and has trained State ginseng coordinators and other personnel in these States on the monitoring protocol. The field data collected will be analyzed in the fall of 2002, and the results provided to DSA for consideration in future findings.
The Service is also funding research at West Virginia University to examine the status of wild American ginseng in West Virginia; the utility of the population indices currently being used by DSA to assess the status of wild populations of American ginseng; the phenolgy of American ginseng and the harvest season start dates; and the potential effects of deer browsing and seed dispersal by deer and turkeys. So far, monitoring in West Virginia has demonstrated that 75% of American ginseng seeds are still green on August 15, the start of the harvest season in West Virginia. The current harvest seasons in many States may allow the harvest of ginseng plants before seeds are fully mature, thus reducing the likelihood of seed germination, which may be detrimental to the long-term survival of the species even if seeds from harvested plants are planted as required by most States.
Socio-economic factors, such as the current low price for wild-harvested American ginseng roots and the unemployment rate in certain States, may influence the demand for and harvest of American ginseng. Research conducted at West Virginia University found a correlation between harvest levels and unemployment (personal communication from Mr. Brent Bailey to Dr. Javier Alvarez, DSA biologist, 2001). However, no correlation was found between price and harvest amounts. Biotic and abiotic factors (such as deer browsing and drought), as well as loss of habitat, also have a negative impact on wild American ginseng populations.
The USFS has a 20-year monitoring study of 2,000 permanent plots on National Forests in the Southern Region. Monitoring data have shown that occupied ginseng plots averaged fewer than 11 ginseng plants, of all age-classes, and that an average of 6.5 plants per plot were located across the landscape within the entire suitable habitat for the species (Steve Simon, Henry McNab, Chris Ulrey, and Gary Kauffman. 2000. Modeling for rich cove forest communities: A treasure trove for special forest products. Excerpts from USFS R8 publication "The Brier Patch." E-mail received 01/12/01). However, researchers have determined that the minimum population size of American ginseng to remain viable is 172 plants (P. Nantel, D. Gagnon, and A. Nautel. 1995. Population Viability Analysis of American ginseng and wild leek harvested in stochastic environments. Conservation Biology, 10(2):608-621).
The USFS data have shown a statistically significant decline in the density of American ginseng plants, from 29.8 plants/plot in 1979 to 5.7 plants/plot in 1999 (based on seven 50-m X 50-m plots). Moreover, population viability analysis of the 5 populations with plants remaining in 1999 suggested that at least three of the five populations were likely to be extirpated within the next 13 years. Modeling of ginseng populations in North Carolina indicated that American ginseng has been completely extirpated from one-third of its historic sites, and that the remaining American ginseng patches are smaller and composed of younger individuals. Based on historical harvest records, the quantity of American ginseng available in some North Carolina counties has declined by more than a factor of 100 since the mid-19th Century (Robert D. Sutter and Gary Kauffman. 2000. Ginseng’s fate: An assessment of the ecological and socio-economic viability of ginseng on U.S. Forest Service land in North Carolina. Unpublished draft report to the U.S. Forest Service in North Carolina).
Examination by West Virginia University researchers of 915 herbarium specimens, deposited in 17 herbaria across the country and collected randomly over a period of 186 years, revealed a significant decrease in the height of the plants, most of it occurring since 1900 (J. B. McGraw. 2001. Evidence for decline in stature of American ginseng plants from herbarium specimens. Biological Conservation, 98:25-32). This reduction in plant size was region-specific, with specimens from the northern portion of the species’ range in North America remaining the same size, whereas specimens from the core of the species’ range (the midwestern, Appalachian, and southern populations) declined in size. Researchers have found that the number of ginseng specimens collected for herbaria also declined during the 20th Century, whereas the number of specimens of other closely related species remained the same or increased (personal communication from Kathryn Flinn, Department of Biology, The College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, to Dr. J. Alvarez, DSA biologist).
An experimental analysis of American ginseng populations of different size-classes by West Virginia University researchers has shown that fruit production per flower and per plant increases with increasing population size (E. E. Hackney and J. B. McGraw. 2001. Experimental demonstration of an allee effect in American ginseng. Conservation Biology, 15:129-136). When the largest plants from a population are removed, the ability of the population to recover is negatively affected by the removal of reproductive individuals. Several earlier studies have shown similar results that the fecundity (number of offspring) of American ginseng is positively correlated with age and size of the population, and is regulated by the availability of resources (W. H. Lewis and V. E. Zenger. 1982. Population dynamics of the American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) (Araliaceae). American Journal of Botany: 70:466-468; and M. A. Schlessman. 1985. Floral biology of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium). Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club, 112:129-133).
The State of South Carolina does not have wild American ginseng populations large enough to sustain a harvest program. However, the State is within the range of the species. Researchers have monitored three American ginseng populations located in forests closed to public access since the 1930s, and results have indicated a high proportion of young and/or small plants, but few large individuals are present (average ages for the plants in the three populations were 2.8, 5.0, and 5.6 years; Dr. Timothy P. Spira, Clemson University, South Carolina, Poster Presentation at the International Botanical Congress, St. Louis, Missouri, August 1999).
As the demand for American ginseng increases, States may establish programs for the distribution of American ginseng seeds from cultivated or non-local seed sources to ginseng diggers as a means of restoring the species in the wild. Ginseng is self-compatible, that is, plants have the ability to produce fruits following self-pollination. Field studies have demonstrated that there is a major genetic divergence [high genetic diversity] in the species (Walter Lewis, and Vincent Zenger. 1983. Breeding systems and fecundity in the American ginseng, Panax quinquefolium (Araliaceae). American Journal of Botany, 70:466-468). Similarly, research done by Holly Grubbs and Martha Case of the College of William and Mary indicates that there is high genetic variability among populations, and low genetic variability within wild American ginseng populations (Ginseng Conference, Louisville, Kentucky May 9-11, 2000). Additionally, other researchers have suggested that local American ginseng populations are highly adapted to local conditions, and that artificial seeding may lead to local loss of fitness, which could lead to an erosion of the gene pool.
New information for the 2002 finding
A review of the annual ginseng harvest reports submitted by State ginseng programs for Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin has revealed the following.
The total amount of wild American ginseng roots harvested in these 19 States for the 2001 harvest season was 75,566 pounds (dry weight). The average number of dry roots per pound as reported by the States is 249 versus 210 for the 2000 harvest season (Table 3). An average of 249 roots per pound at a one-to-one ratio of root to plant, indicates that 18,815,934 individual American ginseng plants were wild-harvested for the 2001 harvest season.
Overall, total harvest of wild American ginseng for the 2001 season decreased by 2.4% (1,864 pounds) from the 2000 harvest (Table 4). Eleven States (Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin) reported a decrease in the amount of American ginseng harvested in 2001 compared to 2000. Eight States reported an increase in their 2001 harvest (Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, and Tennessee) including the top two leading exporters of wild ginseng in the country, Kentucky and Tennessee. In particular, three States reported a large increase in their 2001 harvest compared to 2000: Alabama (133%), Arkansas (75%), and Georgia (131%).
For the second year, the ginseng coordinators for the States of Georgia and North Carolina reported that current levels of harvest of wild ginseng may be causing negative impacts to the States’ ginseng populations. In 2001 Georgia exceeded their ten-year average harvest amount (Table 4). In addition, the State of Minnesota reported that the current level of [American ginseng] harvest on the State’s ginseng population is not having a positive effect. Similar to the 2000 harvest reports, several States reported that they do not have sufficient field data to assess harvest impacts on their wild American ginseng populations (Table 5).
Following implementation of the 5-year age-based restriction (plants must be at least 5 years old) on the export of ginseng roots established in 1999, we had observed that the number of roots per pound decreased (that is, root size increased). However, as stated above, the harvest data for 2001 shows that the average number of roots per pound increased to 249 compared to 210 in 2000. Of the States that reported the number of ginseng roots per pound, eight States showed an increase in the number of roots per pound, and seven States reported a decrease in the number of roots per pound (Table 3). Ohio reported the largest single increase (81%) in the number of roots per pound in 2001 versus 2000.
As determined by regression analysis, 18 States experienced a statistically significant decrease in American ginseng harvest levels during 1992 to 2001 (Table 6). In 18 of the 19 States, the harvest for the 2001 season was below the ten-year average annual harvest (Table 6). In fact in 2001, in six States (31%) the harvest was more than 50% lower than the average annual harvest for the last ten years. (Significance for the regression analyses was set at P=0.20 to increase the power of the analysis to determine whether harvest trends are increasing or decreasing.)
DSA’s analysis of the harvest reports submitted by the States for the 2000 and 2001 harvest seasons has identified a strong relationship between the State counties that have USFS lands and the harvest amounts reported. Most of the American ginseng harvested in several States is reported from counties that have large percentages of USFS lands. Based on data from the 2000 and 2001 harvest reports from North Carolina (reported by county), we found that 18 counties with USFS lands accounted for 92% and 93%, respectively, of the total amount of wild American ginseng harvested in the State in these years. In Virginia, the percentages of wild American ginseng originating from 30 counties with USFS lands are 64% and 75%, respectively, for the 2000 and 2001 harvest seasons; and in Georgia, the percentages are 65% and 89%, respectively, for the 2000 and 2001 harvest seasons.
For the 2002 harvest season, the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (PDCNR) advised their field offices not to issue American ginseng harvest permits unless they think the harvest is sustainable (personal communication from PDCNR to P. Ford, DSA botanist).
In its annual harvest report for 2001, the Virginia Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (VDACS) reported that its harvest season for American ginseng (August 15 to December 31) was originally established by Virginia’s Endangered Plant and Insect Species Act. The VDACS, which administers the State’s ginseng program, supports efforts to delay the harvest season until after September 15, and encourages harvesters to observe the later date. However, the existing harvest season can only be modified by changes to Virginia’s Endangered Plant and Insect Species Act.
The State of Wisconsin will review the phenology of American ginseng, and correct their harvest season to occur when the plant’s fruit are mature [red] (2001 Wisconsin harvest report).
Dr. Daniel Gagnon and other researchers have calculated the percentage of sustainable harvest for many native plants, including American ginseng, to be between 5% and 8% of a population, spread over each size-class of plants. Based on the preliminary field monitoring of American ginseng, Dr. James McGraw of the University of West Virginia has estimated that the annual sustainable harvest rate for American ginseng should be no more than 5% in West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee (the top three leading exporters of wild ginseng in the United States). A harvest rate of 5% would mean that only 5% of plants within a size-class should be harvested. However, a harvester will usually harvest all plants (100%) of the larger plants (3 leaved plants and larger), and may occasionally leave the smaller-sized plants. Dr. McGraw’s report is to be completed in the fall of 2002.
A detailed demographic study of six American ginseng populations has recently been completed in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The population study will be published in a scientific journal later this year (personal communication from J. Rock to P. Ford, DSA botanist). In addition, Dr. James McGraw will publish two research studies on American ginseng in scientific journals later this year (personal communication from Dr. J. McGraw to P. Ford, DSA botanist). Based on field monitoring of American ginseng in seven States in the species’ core range, Dr. McGraw’s work indicates that the species may occur in a greater variety of habitats than previously thought. However, it is never abundant where it occurs (personal communication from Dr. J. McGraw to P. Ford, DSA botanist). Furthermore, Dr. McGraw is expected to report similar patterns identified by Dr. Gagnon and other researchers, that the harvest of American ginseng is usually targeted at larger plants with the most reproductive potential in the population.
A doctoral student at Illinois State University is currently studying the DNA diversity of distinct populations of American ginseng. Similar genetic research in southern Appalachian American ginseng populations has shown little allozyme diversity within local populations (J. Cruse in an abstract by B. Anderson. 2002. Illinois State University).
Ongoing genetic research of American ginseng, as well as research discussed in this finding, have identified several factors, such as planting of non-local or commercial seed into native woodlands and the effects of over-harvesting American ginseng within its range, which may reduce the species’ genetic diversity and affect the long-term survival of the species.
Conclusions
Our analysis of the 2001 harvest report data for wild-collected American ginseng, provided by the 19 States, continues to show a decline in the amount of American ginseng harvested compared to the previous ten years of harvest, a trend first reported in the 1998 finding. Following the implementation of the 5-year age-based restriction (plants must be at least 5 years old) on the export of ginseng roots in 1999, annual harvest amounts appear to have remained relatively consistent for the past three years. However, declines in wild populations of American ginseng throughout its range have been reported.
We believe that an increasing amount of ginseng exported as "wild" may actually be wild-simulated or woods-grown, which appears to be inflating the harvest data for truly wild American ginseng. It is possible that the amount of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng is even higher than the amounts reported, since most States do not separate these roots from truly wild ginseng roots in their reports, and these roots are often indistinguishable through visual inspection. Furthermore, we suspect that the decline in wild American ginseng in recent years has been masked by an increase in the number of roots that are woods-grown or wild-simulated.
We are concerned that more American ginseng is harvested from USFS lands than their permits allow. The USFS collection permits are usually limited to 1 to 2 pounds per permit, and follow State harvest rules and regulations (harvest season; size of plants harvested; planting of seeds). However, once harvest permits are issued by a National Forest, there is difficulty in enforcing harvest restrictions. Recent discussions with the USFS botanists support our suspicion that the amount of wild American ginseng harvested from National Forest lands most likely exceeds the 1 to 2 pounds allowed by the USFS.
We are also concerned that the ginseng coordinator for the State of North Carolina has reported in the last two harvest reports that current levels of harvest of wild ginseng may be causing negative impacts to the State’s ginseng population. More importantly, USFS field data of American ginseng on USFS lands in North Carolina have documented a decline in species abundance, although the issuance of Forest Service collection permits has steadily increased over the past three years. Lastly, there is significant information to indicate that a large percentage of the harvested roots reported for many western counties of North Carolina originates from USFS lands.
We are concerned that for many States the American ginseng harvest season start dates begin before fruit is mature (red), which will decrease the number of potential offspring and recruitment (Table 7).
The majority of the States with a wild American ginseng harvest program do not allow harvest on State lands (Table 5). However, most States continue to report that they do not have the means to survey State lands to assess the status of the species (e.g., abundance, distribution) within their respective States. Harvest is similarly prohibited in National Parks and in an increasing number of National Forests within the species’ core range. These areas represent significantly large areas of potentially protected habitat, but we are increasingly concerned about reports of illegal harvest.
The Division of Scientific Authority’s non-detriment finding must reflect the information provided by the States. However, thus far, we have assessed the status of the species through indirect means, such as monitoring harvest levels, which are often confounded by other factors such as economic conditions, weather, and market price. Although the amounts of wild ginseng harvested in the past three years have remained relatively the same, without species population information, we can not determine with certainty whether harvest of wild American ginseng is sustainable.
To improve management of American ginseng, we will continue to gather and review all available information on the status of this species in the wild and trade in it. In particular, we will evaluate the three independent assessments of American ginseng to be completed later this year or early 2003 (University of West Virginia, Smoky Mountains National Park, and USFS). These surveys are being conducted, in part, as the result of our collaborative efforts with university researchers, State agencies, the National Park Service, and the USFS.
Given the above, we have concluded that the 2002 American ginseng harvest for export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species, provided the following CONDITION is met:
American ginseng roots harvested in 2002 and certified by the States as wild, wild-simulated, or woods-grown may be exported provided that the roots are 5 years of age or older. (Age of ginseng roots at the time of harvest can be determined by counting the number of bud-scale scars on the root. A single scar is produced after abscission of the plants’ aerial stem each year.)
Future Actions
In reviewing the information for this finding, we continue to be concerned about the impacts of harvest of wild American ginseng for both export and domestic markets. In preparation for making our non-detriment finding on exports of American ginseng in 2003, we will be communicating our concerns to Federal and State agencies that are involved in the monitoring, conservation, and regulation of harvest of American ginseng. We will also be seeking up-to-date information on the status of the species, including additional protections afforded to it, and discussing and recommending, as appropriate, specific additional measures that may contribute to conservation of the species and sustainable harvest of ginseng for export. Before we prepare our 2003 finding:
We anticipate having the following three research papers available: an evaluation of management options for wild-harvested American ginseng populations based on demographic consequences, West Virginia University; long-term monitoring results of American ginseng, Great Smoky Mountains National Park; and the Conservation Assessment of American ginseng, U.S. Forest Service. We will assess these reports to determine their applicability to the conservation and management of American ginseng.
We will continue to request that the States submit their annual reports by April 30, so that we have sufficient time for our assessment and determine if any changes to the export program are warranted.
We will work with Federal, State, and private-sector partners to investigate other means for expanding efforts to monitor the status of ginseng in the wild and ensure that harvest levels, are sustainable for both the short and long term.
Upon completion of USFS Conservation Assessment of American ginseng in 2003, we will consult with the USFS to determine what implications their finding may have on the export of American ginseng.
To prevent the harvest of pre-reproductive ginseng plants and to ensure its long-term survival in the wild, we will encourage the two States without a minimum-age/size requirement for harvest (Illinois and Kentucky) to implement one that is consistent with the minimum-age requirement for export.
We will consult with individual States and encourage them to revise their American ginseng harvest start date until after their yearly average date that ginseng seeds are known to be mature (red) in a particular State. We will also encourage the States of Illinois and Virginia to require harvesters to plant the seed of locally harvested American ginseng plants.
We will work with State and Federal agencies to determine where additional outreach might be effective, and if determined to be useful, develop outreach materials for ginseng diggers, which may be used to educate them about the status of American ginseng in the wild, discourage harvest of younger plants, and encourage diggers to plant the seeds of the harvested plants at the appropriate depth.
To improve our analysis, we will continue to encourage all States to report dry roots per pound values in their annual harvest reports, so that we can continue to evaluate these data as an indicator of the impact of harvest on wild ginseng populations.
We will discuss with the States the use of non-local or "commercial" seed for restoration of American ginseng. Although we support, in principle, the concept of restoration as a conservation measure for wild American ginseng, we do not support the planting of non-local or "commercial" seed. We are greatly concerned about the origin of American ginseng seed used for restoration and the impact that non-local seed may have on local gene pools of wild populations of American ginseng. Moreover, we are especially concerned about States where the species is considered Threatened or Endangered (e.g., Michigan and Maine), where random planting of non-local seed may have an even greater adverse effect on the local gene pool of this species.
We have also noted that there is a substantial amount of American ginseng harvested roots that are not certified (Table 8). The States do not explain the reason for the difference (such as whether such roots did not meet the minimum 5-year age requirement). We will consult with individual States to determine how such discrepancies occur and what implications they have for ginseng conservation.
We will investigate whether we can obtain additional information on levels of wild-simulated and woods-grown American ginseng versus truly wild-harvested American ginseng for export.
We will consider and discuss with the States and Federal land management agencies what other effective conservation measures can be implemented to ensure the long-term survival of American ginseng.
Table 2. Amounts of wild-simulated and cultivated woods-grown American ginseng (pounds of dry roots) harvested by States for 2000-2001.

Table 3. Number of dry roots per pound reported by States in 2001 and 2000.

Table 4. Quantity of wild American ginseng harvested (pounds of dry roots).

Table 5. State reported harvest effects on native populations of American ginseng (2001) and regulation of harvest on State lands with wild American ginseng harvest programs.

No harvest is allowed in State Parks or Preserves
*Harvest is allowed on some State lands, such as wildlife management areas
Table 6. Changes in harvest levels and whether they were significant or non-significant (a) for all years for which harvest data is available for each State and (b) for 1992-2001. Statistical significance was determined via regression analysis; P=0.20 (P-values shown in parentheses).

Table 7. State ginseng harvest regulations for the 2002 harvest season.

Table 8. Amounts of American ginseng harvested (pounds of dry roots) versus amounts certified by States for 2001.