U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, International Affairs
To: Chief, Division of Management Authority
From: Chief, Branch of Consultation and Monitoring,
Division of Scientific Authority
Subject: Convention Permit Applications for Ginseng
Harvested in 2001
This document constitutes our finding on the export of
American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L., for the
2001 harvest season.
Please, be advised that, based on our analysis of available
information, we find that the export of wild (including
wild-simulated) ginseng roots of 5 years of
age or older (i.e., with 5 or more bud-scale
scars, or with three or more leaves) harvested during the 2001 season
in the following States will not be detrimental to the survival of
the species: Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky,
Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania,
Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Furthermore, we find that cultivated ginseng roots (of
any age) qualify as artificially propagated (including woods-grown) specimens
in accordance with CITES Resolution Conf. 11.11. We make this finding
for the export of cultivated ginseng roots and their recognizable parts
harvested during the 2001 season in the following States: Alabama,
Arkansas, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine,
Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, North Carolina,
North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia,
Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
We will continue to monitor the status of American ginseng
in the wild, with the understanding that the above finding and associated
restrictions may be modified for exports of ginseng harvested in 2002.
BASIS FOR ADVICE
Background
To ensure that Panax quinquefolius remains viable
throughout its range in the United States and determine whether export
of American ginseng will not be detrimental to the survival of the
species, the Division of Scientific Authority (DSA) annually reviews
the best currently available information from various sources (other
Federal agencies, State regulatory agencies, industry and associations,
non-governmental organizations, and academic researchers) on the general
status and biology of the species, and specifically for each State
from which ginseng roots are exported. This finding is based in part
on annual reports from the States submitted to the Division of
Management Authority (e.g., pounds of wild ginseng
harvested; average number of roots per pound; average age of harvested
plants estimated by counting bud scars or by converting dry eight to
age; trends in abundance of wild ginseng populations as measured in
field surveys).
Biology of the species
1. Research by Charron and Gagnon (1991) substantiates
that ginseng has low seedling recruitment and establishment rates,
a relatively long pre-reproductive period (3 years and more), and
slow individual growth rate (under forest cover; D. Charron and D.
Gagnon. 1991. The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium
[quinquefolius] (American ginseng). Journal of Ecology,
79:431-445). There is a negative correlation between densities of
deer and ginseng plants.
2. Field studies indicate that most ginseng plants
start producing seeds when they attain 2 compound leaves (prongs)
at 3 to 4 years of age (R. C. Anderson, J. S. Fralish, J. E. Armstrong,
and P. K. Benjamin. 1984. Biology of Ginseng, Panex quinquefolius. Illinois
Department of Conservation, Division of Forest Resources and Natural
Heritage, Springfield, Illinois. 32 pages). Preventing harvest of
plants before age 5 should result in up to 3 years of seed production
before they are removed from the wild.
3. A demographic study conducted by Dunwiddie and Anderson,
on two wild populations of American ginseng in Massachusetts from
1986 to 1996, found that the number of individual plants that produced
fruit varied considerably among years, ranging from 0.5% to 33%.
In addition, only 25% of the seed germinated (P. W. Dunwiddie and
J. E. Anderson. 1999. Germination and survival of seed in wild populations
of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) Draft manuscript).
However, in experimental field tests where seeds were sown by humans,
germination rates were 55-75%. The researchers concluded that low
seed production, slow growth, and poor seed dispersal have prevented
historically harvested American ginseng populations from expanding
to occupy many suitable sites. Research done by J.B. McGraw (Harvest
rate and harvest impacts in wild American ginseng. Ginseng Workshop,
May 2000) concluded that germination rates are affected by the depth
at which seeds are buried: the lowest germination was recorded at
0 cm, and the highest at 2 cm (.78 inches), rates decreased thereafter.
4. Research on the seedling mortality rate of ginseng
indicated that mortality is always high; furthermore, the stability
of a population is more sensitive to a decrease in the survival rate
of large individuals than to a reduction in the production of seeds
or in the establishment of seedlings (D. Charron and D. Gagnon. 1991.
The demography of northern populations of Panax quinquefolium [quinquefolius]
(American ginseng). Journal of Ecology: 79: 431-445).
5. Research has shown that the maximum sustainable
rate of harvest of any population is the rate at which mean growth
rate falls below the equilibrium value of 1.0. For ginseng populations,
the maximum sustainable rate of annual harvest resulting in a stable
population would be a little more than 5% (P. Nantel, D. Gagnon,
and A. Nault. 1995. Population Viability Analysis of American ginseng
and wild leek harvested in stochastic environments. Conservation
Biology, 10(2):608-621).
6. Staff of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park
initiated, in the summer of 1998, a demographic study of several
ginseng populations. Field data indicate population growth rates
close to 1.0 (i.e., a stable population), suggesting that
if the populations are to survive, no harvesting can occur (personal
communication from Janet Rock, Botanist, Great Smoky Mountains National
Park, and Daniel Gagnon, University of Quebec at Montreal, to Dr.
Javier Alvarez, DSA biologist).
Protection, Harvest, and Trade
1. Historical harvest records indicate that, from 1821
to 1899, an average of 381,000 pounds of wild root were exported
annually (A. W. Anderson. 1986. Ginseng - America’s botanical
drug connection to the Orient. Economic Botany, 40:233-249). Exports
for 1990-2000 have averaged 111,835 pounds annually. New evidence
suggests that, regardless of the historical abundance of American
ginseng, in some locations it has been reduced to populations of
one to a few dozen individuals (M. E. Van der Voort. 1998. An inventory
of wild-harvested plants in the Otter Creek Wilderness Area of the
Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia. M.S. thesis. Morgantown,
West Virginia).
2. All of the States covered by this finding have been
approved previously by the Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) for
the export of ginseng, based on their regulation of harvest of wild
and/or cultivated ginseng, and for certifying harvested ginseng (including
plants, whole roots, and root chunks or slices) for export.
3. The States of Idaho, Maine, Michigan, North Dakota,
Oregon, and Washington export exclusively artificially propagated
ginseng. The States of Maine and Michigan, both within the native
range of ginseng, have State laws to protect wild ginseng (proposed
as Endangered in Maine and listed as Threatened in Michigan) and
allow only the harvest and export of artificially propagated ginseng.
The States of Idaho, North Dakota, Oregon, and Washington are outside
the native range of ginseng. For the majority of States with a wild
ginseng harvest program, ginseng harvest is not permitted on State
lands.
4. As reported in the 1999 and 2000 findings for ginseng,
the quantity of wild-simulated or woods-grown ginseng has increased
in the last decade, and 8 of 19 States reported exporting from 2.8
to as much as 2,149 dry pounds in 2000 (Table 1). Wild-simulated
and woods-grown ginseng is most often reported as "wild," thereby
affecting the harvest trend data for particular States. This increase
may indicate erroneously that wild populations have remained stable
or have increased, thus allowing for a greater harvest. However,
it is also possible that the amount of truly wild ginseng being harvested
has decreased, potentially due to a host of factors (decreased abundance,
decreased harvest effort, imposition of age restrictions on export),
since the increase in the amount of wild-simulated ginseng reported
appears to be compensating for such a decrease.
5. In the late 1970s, American ginseng roots of wild
origin accounted for approximately 30% of the roots exported from
North America, primarily to Asian markets. Today, only 3.5% of American
ginseng exports are wild-harvested roots; the remaining ginseng is
derived from cultivated plants (Uwe Schippman. 2001. CITES Medicinal
Plants Significant Trade Study). Nevertheless, the demand for wild
ginseng roots remains high due to the preference by Asian consumers
for wild roots over cultivated ones. This is reflected in the average
price per pound of wild roots, which are 17 to 50 times more expensive
than cultivated ones ($250-$500 per pound of wild root versus $10-$15
per pound of cultivated root).
6. In a 1998 survey of ginseng diggers, conducted by
the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 62% of the respondents
(N=171) indicated that they had noticed a decrease in wild ginseng
abundance since they started harvesting ginseng. Moreover, 61% of
ginseng diggers (N=18) and 77% of ginseng dealers (N=26) responding
to a 1998 survey conducted by the Division of Natural Heritage, Tennessee
Department of Environment and Conservation, considered that ginseng
populations had declined in the previous 5 years. A majority of Tennessee
diggers also noted that they had to search over larger areas and
in more places (63% and 59% of respondents, respectively) to find
wild ginseng.
7. The National Park Service (NPS) prohibits the harvest
of native plants from National Parks; however, poaching of ginseng
and other medicinal plants continues to increase, taking place not
only in major National Parks (such as Great Smoky Mountains National
Park, Tennessee/North Carolina; Mammoth Cave National Park, Kentucky;
Shenandoah National Park, Virginia), but also on smaller NPS lands
(Blue Ridge Parkway, Appalachian Mountains; Little River Canyon National
Preserve, Alabama). In Great Smoky Mountains National Park, encompassing
800 square miles in the core of the species’ range, a total
of 10,515 illegally harvested ginseng roots were seized between 1991
and 1999 (J. Rock, J. H. Hornbeck, J. Tietjen, and E. Choberka. 1999.
Habitat modeling and protection of American ginseng in Great Smoky
Mountains National Park). To combat the illegal harvest of ginseng
in Great Smoky Mountains National Park and on other NPS lands within
the range of the species, park officials are permanently marking
roots of individual plants. The markers change the color of the root,
thus causing the roots to be unacceptable for sale.
8. Ginseng poaching is not restricted to Federal and
State protected lands, as it also affects private land owners. At
a ginseng conference held in Kentucky last year, growers identified
illegal harvest of ginseng as a major problem (Ginseng Conference,
Louisville, Kentucky, May 9-11, 2000).
9. The State of South Carolina does not have a wild
ginseng harvest program; however, it is within the range of American
ginseng. Researchers have monitored three ginseng populations located
in forests closed to public access since the 1930s, and results have
indicated a high proportion of young and/or small plants, but few
large individuals are present (average ages for the plants in the
three populations were 2.8, 5.0, and 5.6 years; Dr. Timothy P. Spira,
Clemson University, South Carolina, Poster Presentation at the International
Botanical Congress, St. Louis, Missouri, August 1999).
10. In 1999 and 2000, our non-detriment finding for
wild-collected ginseng was based on the condition that only wild
ginseng roots 5 years old or older may be exported. The age restriction
was implemented in 1999 based on information showing that wild ginseng
populations were in decline throughout the species’ range,
and the amount of available wild ginseng had decreased in some States
during the late 1990s. The application of a 5-year minimum-age restriction
was intended to prevent the harvest of ginseng plants before they
had the opportunity to reproduce.
Most States with wild ginseng harvest programs (Alabama,
Arkansas, Georgia, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, New York,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin)
have regulations to prohibit the harvest of ginseng plants with fewer
than three compound leaves (prongs); that is, harvested plants must
be at least 5 years old (Table 2). Following implementation of the
age-based restriction on the export of ginseng roots in 1999, the
number of roots per pound decreased (root size increased) in several
States where such information is collected. Again this year, the
data show that the number of roots per pound in seven States has
decreased, although the number of roots per pound increased in six
other States (Table 3). Of the top five exporting States, Virginia
and West Virginia showed a decrease in number of roots per pound
(12.0% and 17.5%, respectively), and North Carolina and Tennessee
showed an increase (11.6% and 8.1%, respectively), but Kentucky does
not report this information.
Only three States, Illinois, Kentucky, and North Carolina,
do not have State laws designating the minimum number of leaves (i.e.,
prongs, which indicate the age of the plant) that ginseng plants
must have to be harvested. North Carolina and Virginia do not require
that the seeds be planted at the time of harvest.
Research and Monitoring
1. The Service, the States, industry, and others are
working together to improve monitoring of wild American ginseng,
and to better assess the impact of harvest on wild populations of
ginseng. To this end, we are working in partnerships with scientific
researchers, the States, and other federal agencies (National Park
Service, National Forest Service, and U.S. Geological Survey/Biological
Resources Division) to establish a long-term nationwide monitoring
program for the species. The monitoring program involves the establishment
of survey plots across the leading eight States where wild ginseng
is currently harvested; plots are being surveyed annually. The data
being gathered will be analyzed to determine whether current levels
of harvest are sustainable and whether further restrictions on the
harvest of wild American ginseng are needed. In the summer of 2000,
Dr. Jim McGraw (Plant Population Biologist at West Virginia University)
started to implement the monitoring program and to train State ginseng
coordinators in the eight States. The monitoring information will
be vital to the conservation of American ginseng, including the determination
of sustainable levels of harvest.
2. Additional States have indicated that they will
begin to monitor their ginseng populations. The State of Maryland
has indicated that they will establish monitoring sites to study
State populations and harvest trends (Maryland Ginseng Export Report
2000).
3. In addition to monitoring, the Service is also funding
research at West Virginia University to examine, among other things,
the status of wild American ginseng in West Virginia; the utility
of some population indices currently being used by DSA to assess
the status of wild populations of ginseng; the importance of the
harvest season start date; and the possible effects of deer browsing
and dispersal of seeds by deer and turkeys. Preliminary results indicate
that current harvest seasons in many States are unrelated to plant
phenology and may be detrimental to the long-term survival of the
species. Specifically, many States allow harvest of plants before
seeds are fully mature, thus reducing the likelihood of seed germination,
even if seeds are planted as required by most States.
4. As the demand for ginseng increases, several States
are establishing programs for the distribution of seeds from cultivated
plants to ginseng diggers as a means of restoring the species in
the wild. Ginseng is self-compatible, and field studies have indicated
that there is a major genetic divergence in the species (Walter Lewis,
and Vincent Zenger. 1983. Breeding systems and fecundity in the American
ginseng, Panex quinquefolium (Araliaceae). American Journal
of Botany: 70(3): pp. 466-468). Preliminary research done by Holly
Grubbs and Martha Case of the College of William and Mary indicates
that there is high genetic variability among populations, and low
genetic variability within wild American ginseng populations (Ginseng
Conference, Louisville, Kentucky May 9-11, 2000). Recent experimental
work suggests that local populations are highly adapted to local
conditions, and that artificial seeding might lead to local loss
of fitness.
5. Socio-economic factors (such as the Asian economic
crisis in the late 1990s, increase in the price of roots, and the
prevailing unemployment rate in the United States) may influence
demand for and harvest of American ginseng. Research conducted at
West Virginia University found a correlation between harvest levels
and unemployment (personal communication from Mr. Brent Bailey to
Dr. Javier Alvarez, DSA biologist). However, no correlation was found
between price and harvest amounts. Biotic and abiotic factors (such
as deer browsing and drought), as well as loss of habitat, also have
a negative impact on wild ginseng populations.
New information since previous finding
We have actively continued to collect information on
the biology and status of the species in the wild to ensure that
the continued export of ginseng is not detrimental to the survival
of the species, and to determine if additional changes in the ginseng
export program would be warranted. For this year's finding, we have
obtained the following new information:
1. A review of the annual ginseng harvest reports
submitted by State ginseng programs for Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia,
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Missouri,
New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont,
Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin has revealed the following:
a. Nationwide, total harvest of wild ginseng increased
by 13% between 1999 and 2000 (Table 4). This increase was attributed
to 11 States (58%), including Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee,
Virginia, and West Virginia (the top five leading exporters of
wild ginseng in the country). Overall, total harvest of wild ginseng
for the 2000 season was 73,308 pounds, compared to 64,725 pounds
for the 1999 harvest season (an increase of 8,583 pounds).
b. For three States, the reported increase from
1999 to 2000 was significant: Illinois(82%), Indiana (82%), and
Maryland (381%). Maryland was the only State that increased its
harvest in 2000 to a level higher than the average annual harvest
for the previous 1990-2000 (Table 4).
c. As determined by regression analysis, 13 States
experienced a statistically significant decrease in harvest levels
during 1990 to 2000 (Table 5). In 17 (89%) of the States, harvest
for the 2000 season was below the average annual harvest during
the 1990s. In fact, in 11 States (58%) harvest was more than
30% lower in 2000 than the average for the 1990s; this was true
for four of the five leading exporters of wild ginseng (Ohio,
Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia). (Significance for the
regression analyses was set at P 0.20 to increase our confidence
in the results of the analysis to determine whether harvest trends
are increasing or decreasing.)
2. Based on the conservation status ranking system
developed by The Nature Conservancy and the National Heritage Network,
among States that allow the harvest of American ginseng from the
wild, the Association for Biodiversity Information (ABI) ranks
the species as follows (from NatureServe: An online encyclopedia
of life [web application]. 2001. Version 1.4. ABI, Arlington, Virginia,
USA. Available at natureserve.org;
accessed July 12, 2001):
"imperiled/vulnerable" (S2/S3): Vermont
"vulnerable" (S3): Georgia, Illinois
(S3?), Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, and Minnesota
"vulnerable/apparently secure" (S3/S4):
Tennessee
"apparently secure" (S4): Alabama, Arkansas,
Kentucky, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Virginia,
West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Among States where the species is found in the wild,
but where harvest of wild ginseng is not allowed, ABI ranks ginseng
as:
"critically imperiled" (S1): Nebraska,
Oklahoma, Louisiana, Rhode Island, and South Dakota
"imperiled" (S2): Delaware, Maine, New
Hampshire, and New Jersey
"imperiled/vulnerable" (S2/S3): Michigan
and South Carolina
"vulnerable" (S3): Connecticut, Massachusetts,
and Mississippi
"State reported" (SR)*: Kansas, Ohio
A ranking of SR indicates that reports were received
from the States, but without persuasive documentation to assign a
ranking. None of the states that allow the harvest of wild ginseng
roots received a rating of "secure" (S5), which would
indicate that wild populations of American ginseng are stable.
3. The U.S. Forest Service has a legal obligation (36
CFR 219.27) to assure the continued viability of American ginseng
on National Forest Service lands.
a. Due to concerns of over-harvest and the decline
of ginseng, the U.S. Forest Service Eastern Region (R-9) included
American ginseng on the R-9 Sensitive Plant List for the following
National Forests (NF) and Grasslands (personal communication, Christine
Frisbee, Regional Plant Ecologist for the Eastern Region, April
23, 2001): Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie, Illinois; Chequamegon-Nicolet
NF, Wisconsin; Green Mountain NF, Vermont; Hoosier NF, Indiana;
Huron and Manistee NF, Michigan; Ottawa NF, Michigan and Wisconsin;
Shawnee NF, Illinois; and White Mountain NF, New Hampshire and
Massachusetts. (For the Hoosier NF, the number of permits increased
almost 300% from 1993 [176 permits] to 1996 [519 permits]).
b. The purpose of the Forest Service Regional
Sensitive Plant List is to protect rare species and their habitats
before there is a need to list species as threatened or endangered
under the Endangered Species Act. Listed plant species are vulnerable
due to low population levels or significant threats to habitat.
Collection permits are only issued for scientific or educational
purposes, or for the conservation or propagation of the species
(Forest Service Manual 2673.2(2)).
c. The Forest Service Eastern Region issues
permits for the harvest of American ginseng plants at least 5
years of age or older for the following Forests:
Mark Twain NF, Missouri; Monongahela NF, West
Virginia; and the Wayne NF, Ohio.
The State of Pennsylvania issues permits for
the Allegheny NF.
d. The following R-9 National Forests do not have
known populations of American ginseng; therefore, no permits are
issued:
Chippewa and Superior NF, Minnesota; Finger Lakes
NF, New York; and Hiawatha NF, Wisconsin.
4. The U.S. Forest Service Southern Region (R-8)
considered a temporary moratorium on the harvest of wild ginseng
because collection rates may be exceeding sustainable levels. Forest
Service "studies indicate viability concerns with continued
harvest of this [American ginseng] uncommon species" (U.S.
Forest Service, Southern Region. Forest Botanical Products Maintaining
Sustainability and Responding to Socio-Economic Needs in the Southern
Appalachians. 2000). However, Forest Service R-8 has decided to
collect more field data on the status of the species before initiating
any closure on the harvest of ginseng (personal communication,
Wayne Owen, Regional Plant Ecologist for the Southern Region, April
19, 2001). Within R-8, National Forests in North Carolina represent
1/4 of the species’ core range in the state (1,245,707 acres);
600 permits were issued in 2000 versus 400 permits issued in 1999
(Gary Kauffman, R-8 Forest Service botanist, November 2000).
a. Nevertheless, the Ozark-St. Francis National Forest
in Arkansas, as of May 2000, established a 5-year moratorium on
the harvest of ginseng to prevent further declines in abundance
and until field data indicate that wild populations can sustain
harvesting www.fs.fed.us
b. Additionally, the Ouachita NF in Arkansas
does not issue permits for the harvest of ginseng.
5. The George Washington and Jefferson National Forests
comprise 1,646,328 acres in Virginia, 123,384 acres in West Virginia,
and 961 acres in Kentucky. The combined total of 1.8 million acres
is represented by ten ranger districts, of which only one ranger
district (Glenwood/Pedlar in Virginia) representing 90,000 acres
will issue permits for the 2001 harvest season (personal communication,
Fred Huber, GWNF, July 18, 2001).
6. The following National Forests in R-8 will issue
permits for the 2001 ginseng harvest season: Chattahocheet and
Oconee NF, Georgia; Daniel Boone NF, Kentucky; Croatan NF, Nantahala
NF, Pisgah NF, and Uwharrie NF, North Carolina, and Cherokee NF,
Tennessee.
7. Last year the Daniel Boone NF, located in the
core of the species’ range, restricted collection permits
for ginseng to one pound of green root, and started the harvest
season on September 1 (2 weeks later than in previous years). This
National Forest is also requiring roots to be at least 5 years
of age. (The Lady-Slipper. 2000. Kentucky Native Plant Society.
No. 15:2/3).
8. Many of R-8 (Daniel Boone NF, Croatan NF, Nantahala
NF, Pisgah NF, and Uwharrie NF) and R-9 (Mark Twain NF, Monongahela
NF, and Wayne NF) National Forests are within the core range of
American ginseng. Monitoring data in R-8 suggest that 95% of populations
on National Forest Service lands have significant persistence risks
(Ginseng Conservation Needs in R8, 2000).
9. The U.S. Forest Service in North Carolina has
implemented a marking program, similar to that used by the National
Park Service, to curtail the illegal poaching of ginseng in wilderness
and other protected areas (National Forest in North Carolina, August
29, 2000).
10. Recently, the Appalachian Ginseng Foundation
of Kentucky identified American ginseng poaching to be a major
threat to private landowners and public wooded lands (Appalachian
Ginseng Foundation Newsletter, 2001, No.6).
11. A 20-year monitoring study of 2,000 permanent
plots on Forest Service Southern Region Forests has found that
occupied ginseng plots averaged fewer than 11 ginseng individuals,
including all age classes, and that an average of 6.5 plants per
plot were located across the landscape within the entire suitable
habitat for the species (Steve Simon, Henry McNab, Chris Ulrey,
and Gary Kauffman. 2000. Modeling for rich cove forest communities:
A treasure trove for special forest products. Excerpts from USFS
R8 publication "The Brier Patch." E-mail received 01/12/01).
Furthermore, a statistically significant decline
in the density of ginseng plants was observed, from 29.8 plants/plot
in 1979 to 5.7 plants/plot in 1999 (based on seven 50-m X 50-m
plots). Moreover, population viability analysis of the 5 populations
with plants remaining in 1999 suggested that at least three of
the five populations were likely to be extirpated within the next
13 years. Modeling of ginseng populations in North Carolina indicated
that ginseng has been completely extirpated from one-third of its
historic sites. Remaining ginseng patches are smaller and composed
of younger individuals. Based on historical harvest records, the
quantity of ginseng available in some North Carolina counties has
declined by more than a factor of 100 since the mid-19th century
(Robert D. Sutter and Gary Kauffman. 2000. Ginseng’s fate:
An assessment of the ecological and socio-economic viability of
ginseng on U.S. Forest Service land in North Carolina. Unpublished
draft report to the U.S. Forest Service in North Carolina).
12. Examination by West Virginia University researchers
of 915 herbarium specimens, deposited in 17 herbaria across the country
and collected randomly over a period of 186 years, revealed a significant
decrease in the height of the plants, most of it occurring since
1900 (J. B. McGraw. 2001. Evidence for decline in stature of American
ginseng plants from herbarium specimens. Biological Conservation
98:25-32). This reduction in plant size was region-specific, with
specimens from a northern portion of the species' range in North
America remaining the same size, whereas specimens from the core
of the species’ range (the midwestern, Appalachian, and southern
populations) declined in size. Researchers have found that the number
of ginseng specimens collected for herbaria also declined during
the 20th century, whereas the number of specimens of other closely
related species remained the same or increased (personal communication
from Kathryn Flinn, Department of Biology, The College of William
and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, to Dr. Javier Alvarez, DSA biologist).
13. An experimental analysis of ginseng populations
of different sizes by West Virginia University researchers has
shown that fruit production per flower and per plant increases
with increasing population size (E. E. Hackney and J. B. McGraw.
2001. Experimental Demonstration of an Allee Effect in American
Ginseng. Conservation Biology: Vol. 15, No.1, pp. 129-136). In
addition, when the largest plants from a population are removed,
the effect is to influence the ability of the population to recover
by removing reproductive potential. Several other studies have
shown that a low number of offspring produced correlates with age
and size of the population, and is regulated by the availability
of resources (W. H. Lewis and V. E. Zenger. 1982. Population dynamics
of the American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) (Araliaceae).
American Journal of Botany: 70(3):pp. 466-468 and M. A. Schlessman.
1985. Floral biology of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium).
Bulletin Torrey Botanical Club: Vol.112:129-133.)
14. Three States reported that current levels of
harvest of wild American ginseng are or may be causing negative
impacts to their wild populations. The ginseng coordinator for
the State of Virginia reported that current levels of harvest of
wild ginseng are having a negative effect on the State’s
ginseng population. The ginseng coordinator for the State of North
Carolina stated, "the effect of the current ginseng harvest
levels on North Carolina’s wild ginseng populations: probably
negative but the figures don’t support such an assessment." She
further stated that "while the roots-per-pound average is
worrisomely higher for 2000 season, no trend can be extracted from
the fluctuating figures of the past several years." The State
of Georgia’s ginseng coordinator stated, "It is my opinion
that current levels of ginseng harvest may be causing negative
impacts to local populations, but that there is no clear evidence
of an overall decline in ginseng abundance statewide."
Program Coordinators for four States, Iowa, Maryland,
Minnesota, and Ohio, reported that the effects of current levels
of harvest of wild American ginseng on their wild populations were
unknown (Table 6).
The State of Wisconsin reported in its annual Export
Harvest Report for 2000 that a number of small roots, "too small
to be exported, are being replanted on private lands to be later
harvested and most likely counted as woods grown." The report
continues that the quantity of under-age roots harvested "likely
includes several hundred each year, the exact figure is not known
or small roots are sold under small retail sales domestically." State
officials in Wisconsin have also reported concern about the possibility
that wild-simulated or woods-grown ginseng is being included with
wild-collected ginseng. The State reported a 53% increase in the
number of pounds harvested for the 2000 season as compared to the
1999 season.
15. We have been informed that by the 2002 harvest
season the State of North Carolina may have a law designating the
minimum number of leaves and the requirement that seeds be planted
at time of harvest (personal communication, Marjorie Boyer, July
11, 2001). The State of Virginia will also initiate a review of
their program (personal communication, Keith Tignor, July 17, 2001).
Conclusions
In reviewing the information for this finding, we
continue to be concerned about the impact on the species of harvest
of American ginseng from the wild for both export and domestic use,
and we will continue to closely monitor information on the status of
this species in the wild and trade in it. However, we are currently
unable to quantify the impact of harvest on wild populations with any
accuracy, and must therefore ascertain the impact through indirect
means. Although there is ongoing concern about the status of wild populations,
we note that there are several factors to balance these concerns:
1. For more than half of the States with harvest
programs for wild ginseng, the 2000 harvest levels were below those
for the previous 10 years.
2. An increasing amount of ginseng exported as "wild" is
actually wild-simulated or woods-grown, which appears to be inflating
the harvest data for truly wild ginseng. It is possible that the
amount of wild-simulated and woods-grown ginseng is even higher
than the amounts reported, since all States do not separate these
from truly wild ginseng in their reports, and they are indistinguishable
through visual inspection.
3. The majority of States with a wild ginseng harvest
program do not allow harvest on State lands. Harvest is similarly
prohibited in National Parks and in an increasing number of National
Forests, representing significantly large areas in the species’ range.
While we acknowledge that ginseng on these lands is subject to
illegal harvest, we also know that efforts are being made to address
these problems (e.g., marking of roots), and therefore
these lands increasingly serve as refugia for the species. It appears
that additional closures of National Forests to ginseng harvest
may be forthcoming.
4. Diggers are discouraged from removing plants from
the wild before they have reproduced, due to the 5-year minimum-age
rule. Some States have reported a decrease in the number of roots
per pound (i.e., an increase in root size) of exported
ginseng, indicating that younger plants are not being harvested,
as was intended by application of the 5-year minimum-age condition
on exports.
5. Monitoring of American ginseng and study to evaluate
the sustainability of continued harvest is underway, and we should
be obtaining some initial trend data this year.
6. A persistent seed bank provides some resiliency
to the species.
Therefore, we have concluded that the 2001 American
ginseng harvest for export will not be detrimental to the survival
of the species, provided the following CONDITION is
met:
American ginseng roots harvested in 2001 and certified
by the States as wild or wild-simulated may
be exported provided that the roots are 5 years of age or older.
(Age of ginseng roots at the time of harvest can be determined by
counting the number of bud-scale scars on the root, as described
in Attachment 1. A single scar is produced after abscission of the
plants’ aerial stem each autumn.)
NOTE: In preparation for making
our non-detriment finding on exports of American ginseng in 2002,
we will be communicating our concerns to Federal and State agencies
that are involved in the monitoring, protection, and regulation of
harvest of American ginseng. We will also be seeking up-to-date information
on the status of the species, including additional protections afforded
to it, and discussing and recommending, as appropriate, specific
additional measures that may contribute to conservation of the species
and sustainable harvest of ginseng for export. Specifically:
1. We will be asking the States to submit their annual
reports by April 30, 2002, so we can do an earlier assessment, with
follow-up as necessary, to determine if any changes to the export
program might be warranted.
2. We will work with Federal, State, and private-sector
partners to investigate other means for expanding efforts to monitor
the status of ginseng in the wild and determine sustainable harvest
levels.
3. We will strongly encourage the two Forest Service
Regions, R-8 and R-9, to continue to review their policies and
management of American ginseng and to ensure that diggers are in
compliance with permit terms and conditions. We will consult with
R-8 especially to determine their basis for the continued issuance
of collection permits.
4. To prevent the harvest of pre-reproductive ginseng
and ensure its long-term survival in the wild, we will encourage
States without a minimum-age/size requirement for harvest to consider
implementing one that is consistent with the 5-year minimum-age
requirement for export.
5. We will consult with the States and encourage
them to revise their ginseng harvest regulations, as necessary,
to delay the beginning of the harvest season until after the ginseng
seed has matured, preferably no earlier than September 15 each
year. We will also encourage them to require the planting of seed
from plants as they are harvested, and to provide recommendations
to ginseng diggers on how to plant seed for optimal germination
(see 6.).
6. We will work with State and Federal agencies to
determine where additional outreach might be effective, and if
determined to be useful, develop outreach materials for ginseng
diggers, which may be used to educate them about the status of
ginseng, discourage harvest of young roots (under 5 years of age),
encourage them to plant seed appropriately, and provide other information
that may be useful to them.
7. To improve our monitoring of harvest, we will
encourage additional States to report dry roots per pound values
in their annual ginseng reports to us, and we will continue to
evaluate this data as an indicator of the impact of harvest on
wild ginseng populations.
8. We will discuss with the States the use of non-local
seed for restoration of ginseng. Although we support, in principle,
the idea of restoration as a conservation measure for wild ginseng,
we are greatly concerned about the origin of the seeds used for
restoration and the impact that non-local seed may have on local
gene pools of wild populations of American ginseng, especially
if seed is from artificially propagated, selected strains. We are
especially concerned about States where the species is considered
threatened or endangered (e.g., Michigan and Maine), where
random planting of non-local seed may have an even greater adverse
effect on local gene pools of this species.
9. We have also noted that there is a substantial
amount of harvested roots that are not certified (Table 7). The
States do not explain the reason for the difference (such as whether
such roots did not meet the minimum 5-year age requirement), and
we will consult with them to determine how such discrepancies occur
and what implications they have for ginseng conservation.
10. We will encourage additional States to develop
a process for separately reporting the quantities of wild-simulated
and woods-grown ginseng versus wild-harvested ginseng for export.
As noted above, the increase in the quantity of wild-simulated
and woods-grown ginseng, and the interest of landowners in growing
wild-simulated ginseng, may affect harvested amounts reported and
affect the harvest trends for a particular State by masking the
actual changes in harvest levels for truly wild ginseng. Furthermore,
these categories of roots are not readily distinguishable from
each other (truly wild versus wild-simulated versus woods-grown)
by port inspectors, which represents an enforcement concern. Therefore,
in future years all of these categories will be considered "wild" for
CITES purposes, since none qualify to be treated as artificially
propagated under CITES requirements for such a designation.
11. We will consider and discuss with the States
and Federal land-management agencies the possibility of increasing
the minimum age of roots for harvest, to ensure that plants are
allowed to reproduce adequately before harvest.
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