Natural History of Fire and Flood Cycles

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California Coastal Commission

Natural History of Fire & Flood Cycles

Prepared by Jack Ainsworth & Troy Alan Doss as a = presentation=20 to the Post-Fire Hazard Assessment Planning and Mitigation Workshop at = the=20 University of California, Santa Barbara, August 18, 1995

=20

"...many people do not understand the ecological and scientific = concepts=20 behind fire. For many, fire remains a fearsome, destructive force that = can and=20 should be controlled at all costs. Smokey Bear's simple, time-honored = "only=20 you" fire prevention message has been so successful that any complex = talk=20 about the healthy, natural role of fire gets lost, ignored or denied = by broad=20 internal and external audiences."

from the Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy = &=20 Program Review, Draft Report - June 9, 1995

The July/August 1995 issue of Sierra magazine featured an = article=20 entitled "Only You Can Postpone Forest Fires". Although the message of = this=20 title may falsely incriminate Smokey Bear for the current pyrotechnic = state of=20 America's wildlands, it does imply an important fact; our wildland = vegetation=20 burns. It burns periodically, and must burn in order to survive. In much = of=20 California, the problem is not so much the fact that it burns but that = all too=20 many people chose to build within it, surrounded by what many consider = to be a=20 sea of gasoline. A combination of ignorance and several million years of = evolution have combined to create a deadly situation along the serene = and scenic=20 battlefront commonly referred to as the 'wildland/urban = interface'. The=20 situation has been further exacerbated by over a hundred years of fire=20 suppression where man has tried to control nature, usually with = disastrous=20 results.=20

Fire is an essential part of most wildland ecosystems. In = Mediterranean=20 climates around the world, plant species have adapted to a point that = they would=20 not exist without the presence of fire. Wildland fires spawn a period of = rebirth=20 and vigor in post-fire environments by removing dead materials and by = releasing=20 nutrients back to the environment that are locked up in mature plants = and=20 organic litter. Many fire prone habitats exist around the globe, = however, this=20 paper will focus on the Mediterranean climate of Southern California, = and its=20 associated plant communities. Further emphasis shall be placed on the = Santa=20 Monica Mountains region where the fire/flood cycle has existed for = millions of=20 years, and where impacts of living in the wildland/urban interface have = been so=20 clearly illustrated following the Green Meadow and Old Topanga = Firestorms of=20 1993. However, it should be noted that the fire/flood cycle is not = unique to the=20 Santa Monica Mountains, and that much of California and the West is = under the=20 influence of this cycle as well, although some differences will occur = due to=20 habitat type, and the environmental conditions and other factors = present.=20

Fire in the Landscape

Natural Causes of Fire

The presence of fire in the landscape has been one of the major = evolutionary=20 factors determining the composition of flora throughout the state and = around the=20 world. Natural causes of fire range from lightning, sparks from falling = rocks,=20 volcanic activity, and the spontaneous combustion of plant materials and = other=20 organic matter (Barbour, Burk, & Pitts 1980). However, of these, = lightning=20 is the most influential factor in almost all regions of the world as = lightning=20 strikes the earth an average of 100 times a second totaling over 3 = billion=20 strikes a year (Barbour, Burk, & Pitts 1980). Generated by summer = thunder=20 storms, lightning is responsible for much of the wildland fires that = occur=20 throughout the western United States each year, and have been the cause = of such=20 notable fires as those occurring in Yellowstone and Yosemite National = Parks in=20 1988 and 1990 respectively.=20

Lightening is the result of storms created by the convergence of a = warm moist=20 rising air mass with a cool high air mass as the warm air mass attempts = to pass=20 over a mountain range. This convergence is typical along the Sierra = Mountains,=20 and desert ranges inland, and also occurs, but to a lesser extent, along = the=20 coastal ranges. In California, lightening caused fires typical occur = above 5,000=20 feet in altitude, but are recorded to have occurred at much lower = elevations=20 (Burcham 1987).=20

Man and Fire

Man has also played a role in the pattern of fires in the landscape, = dating=20 back possibly as far as 30,00 years ago with the arrival of the first = Americans.=20 Early Spanish explorers and missionaries documented the use of fire by = Native=20 Americans who used fire clear areas for the germination of oaks, for the = production of acorns, and to create and maintain grasslands for hunting. = Many=20 Native American stories speak of the use of fire, and these stories = indicate=20 that wildfire was also a concern of Native Americans and that fire was = used in a=20 careful and respectful manner (Burcham 1987). Latter, European settlers = used=20 fire to clear brush so land could be used for agricultural purposes. = Through the=20 use of fire, patterns or burn mosaics may have been created, which, to a = certain=20 extent, may have operated as a fuel break due to the reduction of dead = fuels.=20 These inadvertent fuel breaks would have been very important to early = Americans=20 due a limited ability to control blazes of any substantial size.=20

Types of Wildfires

Three main classes of wildfire exist depending upon location in the = fuel=20 matrix and intensity. These are surface, crown, and = ground=20 fires. Surface fires are typically low intensity, rapid fires = that seldom=20 reach high temperatures. These fires consume light fuels and present = little=20 danger to basal portions, root stocks, and tubers, in the soil (Barbour, = Burk,=20 & Pitts 1980). Crown fires occur in the upper sections of = trees and=20 are typically the result of a surface fires. During such fires surface = materials=20 and trees alike are ablaze. Ignited branches and embers fall to earth = further=20 spreading the fire. Ground fires, although occurring less = frequent than=20 other forms of fire, are typically very intense blazes that remove = vegetation=20 and organic matter down to bare mineral earth. The heat and intensity of = such=20 fires can destroy roots, tubers, and rhizomes, located beneath the soil = surface=20 and may devastate entire plant communities (Barbour, Burk, & Pitts = 1980).=20

Response of Vegetation to Wildfire

Various plant species depend upon fire as a means to reproduce, while = others=20 have adapted to survive in the presence of fire. However, the process by = which=20 species have adapted varies greatly. Species such as Monterey, Bishop, = and=20 Knobcone pines have adapted to produce pine cones which hold seeds = locked by a=20 resinous coating that is melted away by fire (Baker 1971). Following a = fire the=20 seeds are released and benefit from improved growing conditions such as=20 available sunlight, a seedbed of bare mineral soil, and nutrients = released from=20 organic matter cleared by the fire. Other species of plants produce = seeds which=20 lie dormant in the seedbed and will germinate only after a fire = heat-treats=20 their seed coat and removes duff from the top soil.=20

In the case of Coast Live Oaks, stump sprouting, or the = generation of=20 new stems and growth from brunt trunks and branches, occurs following a = blaze.=20 In similar manner species such as Our Lord's Candle, Yucca = whipplei,=20 produce new growth from the root crown of a burnt plant in a process = known as=20 crown sprouting. Although all plant communities have developed a = response=20 to fire, the chaparral community associated with the Mediterranean = climates of=20 the world may be the most fire responsive.=20

Patterns of Fire on the Landscape

The pattern of vegetation on the coastal ranges is influence by = factors such=20 as exposure, geology, and of course fire. In the Santa Monica Mountains = these=20 patterns are clearly observed from Agoura Hills to Point Mugu. Rarely = are slopes=20 covered entirely with a pure stand of chaparral, grassland, oak woodland = or=20 other vegetation type in which all the vegetation is of the same age or=20 vegetation group. Exposure, climate, and geology dictate what will grow = where,=20 and fire acts as agent to clear old growth and germinate new vegetation. = In the=20 Santa Monica Mountains, coastal sage scrub is the dominate vegetation = type on=20 the seaward slopes due to a strong marine influence, whereas chaparral = tends to=20 prevail in the northern land ward section of the range. Oak and walnut=20 woodlands, as well as grasslands, can also be found in the interior = sections of=20 the mountains adjacent to or intermixed with chaparral vegetation and in = the=20 riparian corridors in located at the bottom of canyons which drain into = the sea.=20

Soils and exposure create different growing conditions on southern = and=20 western facing slopes, than exist on northern and east facing slopes. In = areas=20 covered by oak and walnut woodland, slopes facing southwest may tend to = be=20 dominated by oaks, whereas the northeastern slopes will contain a mix of = oaks=20 and walnuts which appear to prefer moist shale types of soils. On the = coastal=20 sections of the mountains, southwestern slopes will tend to have shrubs = such as=20 Buckwheat, Toyon, or Rhus, whereas adjacent northeastern facing slopes = may tend=20 to be dominated by Black and White Sage, and other herbaceous shrubs = which need=20 more moisture than their xerophytic neighbors across the canyon. It = should be=20 noted that a mix of both vegetation types, coastal sage scrub and = chaparral, may=20 be found within opposite canyon walls due the presence of micro climates = under=20 the canopies of larger shrubs or trees, or in the shade of rock = outcroppings.=20

Although a combination of soil, geology, exposure and climate may be = the=20 chief factors controlling vegetation type, fire plays an important role = in the=20 life cycle of these plant communities. When driving through California's = coast=20 ranges the pattern of fire can be observed as most landscapes are either = burning, or in a pre-burn or post-burn state. This pattern can be = observed where=20 thick fields of wildflowers cover slopes adjacent to thick stands of = chaparral,=20 where a carpet of green grasses and flowers lay beneath a stand of = branch=20 sprouting oaks, or where a mosaic of grasslands, wildflowers and coastal = sage=20 scrub cover a hill top above a confer forest.=20

Chaparral, a Fire Ecology

Mediterranean/Chaparral Climate

Chaparral habitat covers only about 8.5 percent of California, and = only=20 ranges in elevation from near sea level to over 5,000' in Southern = California,=20 and up to 3,000' in Northern California. Yet, it is considered by many = to be the=20 most characteristic vegetative community of the state (Hanes 1987). This = is=20 especially true in Southern California. Chaparral communities experience = long=20 dry summers, and receive most of their annual precipitation, 10 to 32 = inches per=20 year, from Winter rains (Radtke 1983). Although chaparral is commonly = referred=20 to as one community there are two distinct types; hard chaparral and = soft=20 chaparral, more commonly referred to as chaparral and coastal sage scrub = respectively.=20

It is commonly believed that fire has been an important component of=20 chaparral communities for at least 2 million years; however, the true = nature of=20 the "fire cycle" has been subject to interpretation. In a period of 750 = years,=20 it generally thought that fire occurs once every 65 years in coastal = drainages,=20 and once every 30 to 35 years inland (Barro and Conard 1990). Many = wildland=20 blazes of the interior mountains of California are the cause of = lightning;=20 however, in the coastal ranges of the state, where coastal sage scrub is = a=20 dominant community, the "Catalina eddy" and marine influence create = conditions=20 where summer lightning rarely occurs (Radtke 1983). Despite the marine = influence=20 associated with the coastal range, lightning, or other nature causes, = may still=20 have played a major role in the creation of early to mid summer fires. = Yet, with=20 the advent of fire suppression, fires in this region now occur = predominately=20 between late fall and early winter, coinciding with the Santa Ana winds. = These=20 fires differ in intensity from the interior summer blazes as Santa Ana=20 conditions result in lower than normal humidity levels and produce high = wind=20 speeds which further intensify a wildfire to a point where it produces = its own=20 weather conditions creating what is commonly referred to as = "firestorm".=20 These fires are often too intense to control until fuels are either = consumed,=20 weather conditions change, or the fire reaches the sea.=20

Role of Fire in Chaparral Habitat

The vegetation of chaparral communities has evolved to a point it = requires=20 fire to spawn regeneration. Many species invite fire through the = production=20 plant materials with large surface-to-volume ratios, volatile oils, and = through=20 periodic die-back of vegetation (Barbour, Burk, & Pitts 1980). These = species=20 have further adapted to possess special reproductive mechanisms = following fire.=20 Several species produce vast quantities of seeds which lie dormant until = fire=20 triggers germination The parent plant which produces these seeds defends = itself=20 from fire by a thick layer of bark which allows enough of the plant to = survive=20 so that the plant can crown sprout following the blaze. In general, = chaparral=20 community plants have adapted to fire through the following methods; a) = fire=20 induced flowering; b) bud production and sprouting subsequent to fire; = c)=20 in-soil seed storage and fire stimulated germination; and d) on plant = seed=20 storage and fire stimulated dispersal (Barbour, Burk, & Pitts 1980). =

Response of Chaparral to Wildfire

Whereas a yellow pine forest may take hundreds of years to recover to = its=20 pre-burn state, it may take only ten years for coastal sage scrub to = recover=20 following a fire. The recovery of a coastal sage occurs through a = successional=20 process in which various sub-communities of coastal sage are present at=20 different time periods following the fire. During the first two years = herbaceous=20 annual species dominant the landscape. Fire treats the seeds of these = species=20 which flourish in an environment cleared of litter, high in available = nutrients,=20 and bathed in sunlight. It is during these years that spectacular = displays of=20 wildflowers abound. Species such as California Poppies, Blue Dicks, = Mariposa=20 Lily, Fire Hearts, Lupines and many others carpet the post-burn = environment.=20

Among this colorful display is a rebirth of more typical perennial = chaparral=20 species such as Chamise, Coastal Sage, California Buckwheat, Poison Oak, = and=20 Bush Sun Flower. These and other species, such as Ceanothus, Manzanita, = Laurel=20 Sumac, and Sugarbush, begin to germinate from seed as the fire has = scarified=20 their seeds coats. Coast Live Oaks, and Laurel Sumacs also begin to = recover=20 through the process of crown sprouting and stump sprouting.=20

Two to three years following the blaze the fire annuals begin to = disappear.=20 They have produced vast quantities of seeds which are now stored in the = soil=20 until the next blaze comes along. The herbaceous community has succumbed = to=20 various factors such as a lack of fire scarified seeds, limited = available sun=20 light, due to a new canopy of perennial growth, and as the result of = toxins,=20 allelopathogens, released by perennials such as Chamise to reduce = competition with other species. Many of the herbaceous species, such as = Lupines,=20 have laid the path to recovery by processing, or fixing, = nutrients like=20 nitrogen into a form which can be used by subsequent and more dominant = perennial=20 species. Other nitrogen fixing species like Deerweed have recovered as = well, and=20 it is at this time that perennial species begin to flower and thus start = seed=20 production once again.=20

Four to ten years following a fire the landscape is once again = dominated by=20 Chamise, Laurel Sumacs, Sugarbush, Buckwheat, Monkey Flowers, = Live-Forevers,=20 Toyon, and others. The community is reaching equilibrium and will begin = the=20 process of accumulating woody, dead, and organic materials rich in = flammable=20 oils until the next fire is allowed to burn, or escapes to the Santa Ana = winds.=20

Fire / Flood Cycle

Erosional Processes in Chaparral Watersheds

Erosion is a prevalent process in chaparral habitat. Slopes ranging = from 25=20 to 70 degrees in steepness are typical in chaparral habitat (Radtke = 1983). This=20 is due to the fact that chaparral habitat is typically associated with = mountain=20 ranges which are young and geologically active. Close to 25% of = chaparral=20 watersheds exceed what is referred to as the angle of repose, or = the=20 angle between the horizontal and the maximum slope that a particular = soil or=20 other material assumes through natural process (Radtke 1983). These = slopes are=20 shaped by gravity as materials not firmly attached to the slope slide = and fall=20 unless held in place by plant materials or other factors.=20

The Santa Monica, San Gabriel, and San Bernadino Mountains, as well = as most=20 of the coastal ranges, are extremely young and extremely geologically = active.=20 Writer John McPhee, in his essay Los Angeles Against the = Mountains,=20 suggest that the mountains of Southern California appear to be crumbling = faster=20 than they are rising due to the steepness, nature of rock and soils = associated=20 with these ranges, and the constant battering the ranges receive from=20 earthquakes. McPhee relates the story of a group of scientists from = Spain whom=20 after observing the rate of decay of the San Gabriel Mountains felt = sorry for=20 their local counterparts who would be out of work due the rate of = disintegration=20 on the mountain front (McPhee 1989). The fact is, most of Southern = California's=20 mountain ranges are rising faster than they are crumbling.=20

Gravity, more than water or wind, may be the most important cause of = erosion=20 in chaparral habitat. On slopes steeper than the angle of repose a = process known=20 as dry creep and dry ravel occurs, which is basically the down = slope=20 movement of materials due to gravity. During dry years this process can = exceed=20 erosion rates that occur during the wettest season of the year (Radtke = 1983). In=20 parts of Southern California, the process of dry ravel, independent of = fire,=20 accounts for over half of all hillside erosion (Anderson and others, = 1959;=20 Krammes, 1965; Rice, 1974; Howard, 1982). Over 25% of the watersheds of = Santa=20 Barbara, Los Angeles, and San Bernadino Counties are effected by this = process=20 (Rice 1987). The occurrence of dry ravel is probably unknown to most = people,=20 even those that live in the wildland/urban interface, as this process = occurs on=20 steep slopes away from structures, or unobserved under a canopy of = vegetation.=20 However, the presence of dry ravel becomes apparent following a fire as = the=20 formation of riles formed by dry ravel and dry creep = appear on the=20 barren slopes of post-fire watersheds. On going studies in the = California=20 chaparral wildlands demonstrate that dry ravel and, to a lesser extent, = the=20 formation of extensive rill networks account for most of the increased = sediment=20 production following a fire (Wells, 1986). This process may even be more = prominent in the post-fire environment due to creation of = hydrophobic=20 soil layers during a blaze.=20

Hydrophobic Chaparral Soils

During a fire temperatures at ground level may reach six to seven = hundred=20 degrees centigrade. Oils, resins, and waxy fats stored in plants and = their=20 litter are released as they vaporize due to the intense heat (McPhee = 1989). Soil=20 is a excellent insulator, and temperatures just several centimeters = bellow the=20 surface remain much cooler, allowing the vaporized substances to = recondense=20 forming what is referred to as a hydrophobic layer, a condition = also=20 known as nonwettability. This layer is impermeable and prevents = water=20 from reaching all but the first few inches of soil, but at the same time = slows=20 the process of evaporation in the root zone. The extent and depth of a=20 hydrophobic layer will depend upon the type of soil present. In the case = of clay=20 soils, which are fairly dense, they tend to resists this condition; = however,=20 sandy and sandy loam soils appear to be far more susceptible to = hydrophobic=20 conditions (DeBano 1987). If a drop of water is placed on an pre-burn = sample of=20 sandy loam soil, the water will all but disappear. Yet, if a water is = placed=20 upon a post-burn sample, the drop will ball up and may remain there for = hours.=20 The depth at which these layers form is further the result of such = factors as=20 fire intensity, and the content of soil moisture (DeBano 1987). The = firestorms=20 of Southern California typically occur just prior to the winter rains. = Water=20 quickly saturates the thin layer of permeable soil above the hydrophobic = zone=20 not being slowed by a vegetative canopy. Slower infiltration rates = result in an=20 increased intensity of surface runoff and erosion.=20

Debris Flows

Post fire erosion rates may be more than 50 - 100 times greater than = on a=20 well vegetated watershed (Radtke 1983). Work by Davis (1977) suggests = that many=20 post fire flows are debris flows. In the watersheds that Davis studied = he found=20 bulking ratios in runoff ranged from 0.5% to 2.5% by volume for normal = flows to=20 40% to 60% by volume for post fire flows. The process by which debris = flows=20 develop in the post fire environment are the acceleration of dry ravel = and=20 formation of rill networks. The rill networks develop rapidly and = deliver runoff=20 water to the stream channels where large amounts of debris, delivered by = both=20 processes, are stored (Wells, 1987). The result is a rapid mobilization = of=20 channel deposits into debris flows (Wells, 1987). These debris flows = usually=20 occur in small watersheds in response to unusually small amounts of = rainfall.=20 However, large debris flow events can occur when a extreme storm event = occurs=20 after a severe fire.=20

Work done by Florsheim and others (1991), following the 1985 Wheeler = Fire=20 near Santa Barbara, suggest that normal fluvial transport of these = sediments is=20 more likely, and moderate storm events that could mobilize sediments are = far=20 more likely to occur than large magnitude, high intensity storm events = that=20 would generate large destructive flows. In any event, what is clear is = that the=20 post fire landscape is subject to significantly increased erosion rates = capable=20 of producing large destructive debris flows. Increased post fire erosion = rates=20 can be expected for a period of 8-10 years. During this recovery erosion = rates=20 might be 9 to 10 times greater than those before burning.=20

Post Fire Landslides

Most chaparral in Southern California grows on geologically young = mountains=20 where the steep slopes range from 25 degrees to 70 degrees (Radtke = 1983). About=20 25 percent of the chaparral watershed exceeds the angle of repose, that = is the=20 angle between the horizontal and the maximum slope that a particular = soil or=20 other material assumes through natural processes.(Radtke 1983). On = vegetated=20 slopes anchored by deep rooted plants the angles of repose can be much = steeper.=20 Specific factors that can cause or contribute to landslides are; 1) = weakness of=20 the slope material; 2) steep or undermined slopes; 3) unfavorable = geologic=20 structural conditions; 4) prolonged precipitation; 5) absence or = sparsity of=20 vegetative cover; and 6) ground shaking (Gray 1985). Landslide = occurrences in=20 the chaparral landscape are strongly related to the angle of repose for=20 different soils , taking into account cover, root depth, and root = strength.=20 Soils slips and landslides account for almost 50% of the total erosion = in a=20 watershed (Radtke 1982). Unlike dry creep, these soil movements normally = occur=20 when the soil is saturated. Although hydrophobic soils, dry ravel and = formation=20 of rills and the debris flows associated with these processes account = for the=20 majority of post fire erosion, landsliding activity may also increase as = a=20 result of fire.=20

Increases in landslides during the rainy period following a fire = could be=20 caused by well-spaced storms that permeate the nonwettable layer and = completely=20 recharge the water holding capacity of the soil (Radtke 1983). Once the = soil=20 moisture is recharged, a high intensity storm could quickly = supersaturate the=20 soil, thereby accelerating wet creep, starting slumps slides, and = greatly=20 increasing overland flow (Radtke, 1983). However, post fire landsliding = during=20 the first few years following a fire may be greatly reduced on = nonwettable soils=20 if high intensity storms follow each other in close order, thereby = reducing=20 rainfall penetration through the nonwettable layer. The soil below the=20 nonwettable layer would remain dry, eliminating landslides, but greatly=20 increased overland flow would result in highly visible rill and gully = erosion=20 and would increase channel scour (Radtke, 1983).=20

Another possible contributing factor to increased landsliding in the = post=20 fire environment is stream channel scour and erosion. This process may = remove or=20 over stepped the channel banks contributing to landsliding of over = steepened=20 slopes along the creek channel, or possible reactivate previous = landslides by=20 removing the toe of the slide.=20

Development in the Chaparral = Community

Santa Monica Mountains

The Santa Monica Mountains provide an excellent case study of the = dangers of=20 living in the wildland/urban interface. Physically, the Santa Monica = Mountains=20 are not that different from much of California's coastal or Peninsular = Ranges,=20 except for their proximity to the greater Los Angeles basin. Extending = 46 miles=20 from Point Mugu in Ventura County to Griffith Park in the heart of the = City of=20 Los Angeles, the Santa Monicas bisect the second largest metropolitan = area in=20 the United States. It is the adjacency of the mountains to Los Angeles, = as well=20 as breath taking views and a sense of living in a rural environment, = that make=20 them such an ideal place to take up residency. A mixture of oak = woodlands,=20 riparian corridors, and coastal sage scrub vegetation add to the scenic=20 qualities and rural feeling of the mountains. An article in the February = 13,=20 1994, edition of the Los Angeles Times assessed the paradoxical nature = of=20 development in the Santa Monica Mountains in the following way:=20

"Southern California's stored hillsides nurture native vegetation = that is=20 literally explosive. Many types of Chaparral plants reproduce only after = a=20 wildfire has moved through. But these hillsides also provide what much = of the=20 area can't: a rural feel, scented air, scenic views of ocean and city. = They are=20 the most desirable, expensive real estate in California. And they = burn".=20

The major plant communities of the Santa Monica Mountains are = chaparral and=20 coastal sage scrub, also referred to as hard chaparral and soft = chaparral=20 respectively (Radtke 1983). Oak woodland, and coastal grasslands also = exists=20 here, yet it is among chaparral and coastal sage scrub habitats where = most of=20 the wildland/urban interface occurs, and where the greatest danger of = wildland=20 configuration is present.=20

Old Topanga Firestorm of 1993

At approximately 10:45 a.m., on the morning of November 2, 1993, the = second=20 of two arson suspected fires began to burn substantial portions of the = Santa=20 Monica Mountains. At this same time 21 wildfires were burning throughout = the=20 Southern California area. The Old Topanga Firestorm erupted near the = southern=20 limits of the City of Calabasas and consumed approximately 18,000 acres = of=20 watershed, took the lives of 3 residents, and damaged or destroyed over = 408=20 single family residents (SFR) on its march towards the Pacific Ocean. = Over 208=20 SFRs were lost in the City of Malibu alone.=20

This was not the first fire to destroy homes in the Santa Monica = Mountains,=20 nor to occur in the area impacted by the Old Topanga Firestorm. The Hume = Incident of 1956 burned approximately 1,940 acres, the Piuma Incident of = 1985=20 burned approximately 5,160 acres, and the Wright Incident of 1970 = destroyed=20 27,925 acres, and all occurred within or adjacent to the boundaries of = the Old=20 Topanga Incident (CLAFD 1994). Wildfires in the Santa Monica Mountains = occur in=20 almost predictable corridors which begin in the northern sections of the = mountains and burn until they reach the Pacific Ocean, referred to by = many as=20 the "Great Pacific Fire Break". Some have said that the Old Topanga = Firestorm=20 was one of the most predictable fires in the history of development in = the=20 mountains; however, the same shall be said again in different areas of = the=20 mountains following future conflagrations.=20

Most of fires in the Santa Monica Mountains have been fueled by a = combination=20 of prolonged fire suppression resulting in an accumulation of dry woody=20 chaparral fuel and the annual Santa Ana Winds. On November 1, 1993, a = high=20 pressure zone moved in over the Great Basin, while at the same time a = low=20 pressure system moved in off the coast of Southern California. This = situation=20 created the Santa Ana Winds which drove the Old Topanga Firestorm. On = November=20 2, 1993, a "Red Flag" warning was issued as temperatures in the high = 80s, and=20 winds from 20 to 40 miles an hour were predicted. The high temperatures = and=20 winds combined to produce a relative humidity of only 7 to 13% which = began to=20 drop as the Santa Ana began to build (CLAFD 1994).=20

Those who have survived previous fires, such as the 1970 Wright = blaze, and=20 the Piuma Incident of 1985, have stated that the Topanga blaze burned = with a=20 previously unseen intensity, and within the first hour of the blaze the = Incident=20 Commander predicted that the fire would "go the beach" a distance over 5 = miles=20 away (CLAFD 1994). The fire spread from 1 acre to 200 acres in ten = minutes, and=20 within one hour the fire had consumed over 1,000 acres of chaparral. The = blaze=20 produced a column of smoke which rose six miles into the sky, which in = turn=20 created a huge vacuum, and in affect its own weather pattern (CLAFD = 1994). The=20 Old Topanga Incident had become a firestorm.=20

The fire would continue for 3 days, aided by changing weather = patterns and an=20 abundance of dry fuels, including not only chaparral but single family=20 residences and the ornamental landscapes that surrounded them. The fire = resulted=20 in the largest deployment of fire fighters in the history of California=20 involving 165 engine strike teams, 25 single resource engines and = Emergency=20 Support Teams, 129 hand crews, 31 air tankers, 23 helicopters, 13 = dozers, 50=20 water tenders, 8 food dispensers, over 7,000 fire fighters and support=20 personnel, and the support of 458 agencies from 12 states (CLAFD 1994). = The fire=20 cost over $1.3 million in terms of fire suppression, destroyed = approximately=20 $230 million in private and public property, and has lead to the = spending of=20 millions of dollars in post fire flood and erosion control mitigation = (Carter,=20 Bean & Weissler 1994).=20

The Floods of 1995

The first winter rain season following the Old Topanga Firestorm = created more=20 worry than disaster. Although mudslides, debris flows, and flooding did = occur,=20 the extent of damage was manageable, albeit costly in terms of public = works=20 projects. However, despite the absence of massive flooding and debris = flows,=20 sedimentation was accumulating in the drainages below the slopes cleared = of=20 mature vegetation. Through various erosional processes, such as dry = ravel, and=20 the stage was being set for a disastrous chain of events should a heavy = rain=20 season appear within the next few years. That season came in the winter = of 1995=20 as an El Nino weather pattern formed in the Pacific Ocean producing = heavier than=20 usual rains throughout the State of California and the West.=20

As the years prior to the Fires of 1993 involved a prolonged drought, = many of=20 the watersheds stripped of vegetation had been eroding due to dry ravel, = a=20 process which was further enhanced by barren slopes with hydrophobic = soils. Many=20 of the major riparian corridors within the burn area of the Old Topanga=20 Firestorm were loaded with sediment and only required the right flow of = water to=20 set off the second part of the fire/flood cycle. The first heavy rains = hit the=20 Santa Monica Mountains in late January and continued through February = and well=20 into March of 1995. In January a storm of only 2 year intensity hit the = Las=20 Flores Canyon, Carbon Canyon, and the Malibu/Cold Canyon watersheds. The = damage=20 from this storm alone was several million dollars, and it completely = flooded the=20 area surrounding Malibu City Hall, closed the Pacific Coast Highway = (PCH) in=20 several locations for days, as well as most of the few remaining access = route in=20 and out of the city. In March of 1995 a storm hit the mountains dumping = over 3=20 inches of rain in 2 hours upon the Topanga Canyon, Tuna Canyon, and Pena = Canyon=20 watersheds. The result of this storm was a debris flow which covered PCH = with=20 over 12 feet of mud and debris and closed the major route in and out of = Malibu=20 for over 3 days, as well as damaging or destroying several residences = and=20 associated structures.=20

Many historic and ancient landslides throughout the Santa Monica = Mountains=20 were reactivated by heavy, and more importantly, constant winter rains. = The=20 Rambla Pacifico landslide, which in 1984 destroyed 11 homes and closed = the=20 easiest access route to PCH, again began to move at a rate of = approximately 60=20 feet per year on average on its northern lobe, and 30 feet per year at = its=20 southern lobe. The increase in speed was largely the result of the = undermining=20 of the slide mass by Las Flores Creek, which was flowing along the base = of the=20 slide at a rate of at least 4,000 cfs during the storm events of January = and=20 February 1995. The movement of the slide now threatens one of three = remaining=20 access routes into the area, as well as properties adjacent to the slide = destroyed by the fires.=20

Many other landslides throughout the Santa Monica Mountains have = activated as=20 a result of the rains, closing roads for weeks on end. Some roads = remained=20 closed into the summer and fall of that same year. These landslides = become=20 active as ground water filtrates through soil horizons and onto the = slide plains=20 of these unstable slopes. Approximately a hundred properties are now = threatened=20 by the active movement of both small and regional slides. Many of these=20 properties have subsequently been impacted by the floods of 1995, and = the Old=20 Topanga Firestorm of 1993.=20

Post Fire Mitigation Efforts

Development in the Urban/Wildland Interface

Over 1,000 homes were destroyed by fire in six Southern California = counties=20 between October 25 and November 10, 1993 (FEMA-OES 1994). During the Old = Topanga=20 Firestorm alone at least 3,500 homes were directly threaten with = destruction.=20 The Oakland/Berkeley Hills Fire of 1991 destroyed 2,449 single family = residents,=20 437 apartment dwellings and condominium units, burned over 1,600 acres, = killing=20 25 people, and injured another 150 people (NFPA 1992). In the summer of = 1994,=20 over 50,000 acres and 37 homes were destroyed by fire (Planning 1995). = With such=20 staggering statistics it is a wonder to many why one would choose to = live in the=20 urban/wildland interface, but many do. Over six million Californian = residents=20 live in wildland areas, with another four million along the wildland=20 urban/interface (Planning 1995).=20

The urban/wildland interface is a wonderful place to live from an = aesthetic=20 point of view, and these areas provide a rural environment to many who = have=20 given up on the lifestyle of the urban flat lands of areas like the Los = Angeles=20 basin. Yet, natural processes are seldom understood or taken into = consideration=20 by those who develop or live in the urban/wildland interface. Millions = of=20 dollars are spent every year in fire suppression, flood control, and by = tax=20 subsidized insurance programs paid for off the backs of the majority of=20 "flatlanders" who don't live with such risks, and by those who can not = afford to=20 live in such locations. In a recent letter to the City of Malibu, the = National=20 Foundation for Environmental Safety, Inc., stated:=20

"Man-made calamities should not be continuously confused with 'Acts = of God.'=20 The life style of people living in slide, flood, and fireprone = communities where=20 periodic and largely foreseeable 'man-made' disasters occur on a = seemingly=20 regular basis (such as in many areas of the Santa Monica Mountains and = much of=20 Malibu) is supported by the general public in the form of FEMA (Federal) = and OES=20 (State) disaster aid and State-mandated subsidies."=20

These areas are a dangerous place to put a home, and require that = many pay=20 with tax dollars and sometimes their lives for a privilege experienced = by only a=20 few. Furthermore, it is difficult and costly for government to prevent = the=20 spread of development into these areas as any conflict between = government and=20 the property owner over the development is such areas may result in a = "takings"=20 case, resulting in the further spending of tax dollars. Additionally, = past=20 development in the interface has occurred, far too often, with little = planning=20 for the inherent risk associated with living in these areas. Small = wildland=20 fires may quickly be extinguished, but this only results in the further = build up=20 of dead woody materials unless the fuel is removed by hand, or allowed = to burn=20 during a seasonal summer fire or as the result of a controlled burn. = When large=20 conflagrations occur it may be impossible for fire fighters to much more = than=20 observe a blaze, as they are charged with protecting life before = property, and=20 this includes their own lives.=20

Fire Suppression

As development has extended, or exploded as it has in some areas, = into the=20 chaparral environment, residents and government agencies have had to = respond to=20 the hazards associated with living in the urban/wildland interface. The = majority=20 of urban settlers who moved into these wildland areas are ignorant of = the=20 environment they are moving into and ill equipped to live in this = wildland=20 environment. Too often home buyers fail to realize that fire protection = agencies=20 may not be able to save their home from fire, and that agencies charged = with=20 building and safety and flood control may be powerless to save them from = floods,=20 mudflows, and landslides.=20

The primary response from government has been to initiation = aggressive fire=20 suppression and management in an attempt to eliminate fire from native = lands. In=20 spite of these aggressive fire suppression efforts large wildfires = continue to=20 consume vast acreages of chaparral in Southern California. After nearly = a=20 century of suppression, there has been increasing debate that fire = control=20 efforts have altered chaparral fire regimes in ways that magnify the = treat of=20 burning, erosion, sedimentation, and flooding at the urban/wildland = interface=20 (Pyne 1982). Fire suppression in Southern California appears to be = producing=20 older growth stands of chaparral which result in larger more intense = fires.=20 Younger chaparral stands (less than 20 years) are less likely to burn = due to=20 lower ratios of dead fuel to live fuels and reduced horizontal and = vertical=20 continuity of fuels. In northern Baja California where fire suppression = has not=20 been practiced to the extent it has in Southern California a mosaic = pattern of=20 differing age stands of chaparral appears to have developed resulting in = smaller=20 fire events of less intensity. Minnich (1983) comparing the chaparral = fire=20 regimes in southern California and Baja California found that in Baja = California=20 numerous small fire events fragment stands into a fine mixture of age = classes, a=20 process which appears to help preclude large fires. While the pattern of = large=20 fires in Southern California appears to be an artifact of suppression.=20

Fire suppression is extremely effective at the ignition stages of a = fire and=20 where climatic conditions are favorable. Therefore, fires occurring in = Southern=20 California in the summer during periods of higher humidity, lower wind = speeds=20 and temperatures are much more easily controlled. Most of Southern = California's=20 major fires occur in the very late summer and fall periods during off = shore wind=20 conditions (Santa Ana Winds) which are characterized by high = temperatures, low=20 humidity and very high wind speeds. Fires in this type of severe weather = conditions are extremely difficult and in many cases impossible to = control. This=20 type of weather scenario in conjunction with extensive areas of older = chaparral=20 stands result in fire magnitudes so great that entire watersheds are = completely=20 denuded of vegetation. This intense type of fire can even consume young = moist=20 stands of chaparral.=20

The extent of burned watershed can magnify flash-flood runoff = behavior and=20 high sediment yield in an exponential fashion (Minnich, 1989). Higher = regional=20 fire intensities may also result in more extensive hydrophobic soil=20 impermeability and high runoff (Minnich, 1989). These adverse watershed = impacts=20 can be moderated by implementing a sustained-yield program of small to = medium=20 size planned burns to produce the stand mosaic similar to the Baja = California=20 chaparral model.=20

Prescribed burns adjacent to the urban wildland interface can present = some=20 challenging problems. The common complaints voiced by residents of these = areas=20 are the annoyance and potential health effects of the smoke, reduced = visibility=20 and potential danger of the controlled fire escaping and endangering = their=20 residences. Furthermore, air quality regulations, particularly in = Southern=20 California, severely limit the time of year these burns may occur. Given = these=20 constraints the prescribed burning near the urban wildland interface can = be=20 carried out only on a very limited basis. However, even on a limited = basis=20 prescribed burning in the urban wildland interface can be a valuable = cost=20 effective fire management tool for protection agencies.=20

The proximity of the Malibu/Santa Monica Mountains to the Los Angeles = metropolitan region coupled with it's coastal location, breath taking = views,=20 access to undisturbed natural areas, and sense of rural living make this = a very=20 desirable area. With proper land use planning, site planning, building = codes and=20 vegetation clearance it is possible to significantly reduce the threat = of fire=20 in the Chaparral community. However, the problem in the Santa Monica = Mountains=20 is there are literally thousands of existing legal undeveloped parcels=20 comprising hundreds of acres of land area that are located in very = remote,=20 topographically constrained, and environmentally sensitive areas. These = factors=20 make it quite difficult to mitigate the threat of fire and adverse = environmental=20 impacts.=20

There are also a number of very poorly planned subdivisions which = were=20 divided in the late 1920s and 30s with lot sizes of less than an acre = and many=20 more typically 5,000 to 10,000 sq. ft. in size. These subdivisions were=20 primarily designed for weekend cabin type of use. However, today the = expensive=20 homes built on these parcels are occupied on a year round basis. There = are=20 approximately 6,000 of these ill-conceived small parcels in the Santa = Monica=20 Mountains. These subdivisions have very narrow winding roads which = cannot=20 accommodate fire equipment and are for the most part very heavily wooded = with=20 both natural and exotic plant species. These types of subdivisions are = disasters=20 just waiting to happen.=20

Proper site design on a large parcel can reduce fire danger to some = extent,=20 however, in these small lot subdivisions it is impossible in many cases = to=20 significantly reduce the fire hazards given the very steep site = topography, lack=20 of adequate water supply, proximity to other structures and limited = access for=20 fire equipment.=20

Given that the threat of fire alone has not provide an adequate basis = to=20 prohibit development on these parcels and given the more rigorous = requirements=20 placed on regulatory agencies by recent court decisions regarding = constitutional=20 takings of private property, these parcels are and will continue = building out.=20 Furthermore, as most of us know today regulatory agencies are facing = even more=20 severe limitations and restrictive requirements regarding regulation of = private=20 property. Therefore, the over simplified argument, which is voiced quite = often=20 is "just deny all development of homes on these parcels" is just not = realistic=20 or legally justifiable.=20

In order to reduce the buildout of these subdivisions and remote=20 environmentally sensitive parcels the California Coastal Commission = developed=20 the Transfer of Development program in the Malibu/Santa Monica Mountains = Area of=20 the Coastal Zone. Simply the Transfer of Development program requires = that any=20 time a new parcel is created through the subdivision process, the = equivalent=20 development rights on designated small lot subdivision lots or remote=20 environmentally sensitive parcels have to be retired. In theory, the = newly=20 created subdivisions are located in areas more suitable for this type of = development. To date 924 substandard lots have been retired in small lot = subdivisions and some 800 acres of remote environmentally sensitive = parcels have=20 been retired. Making the Malibu/Santa Monica Mountains Transfer of = Development=20 program one of the most successful in the United States.=20

Potential Impacts of Post-Fire Mitigation / Aerial Seeding

As fire is a natural part of most California ecosystems, chaparral = has=20 adapted to rely on the fire/flood cycle as a means to survive. Fires = clear dead=20 materials, open up seedbanks, and release nutrients back to the = environment.=20 Floods, in a similar manner, generate a regrowth of riparian growth and=20 transport nutrients and propagates throughout riparian corridors. Post=20 fire/flood systems recover at a fairly rapid rate if allowed; however, = often=20 post fire mitigation efforts are used rather than allowing the natural = system to=20 recover on its own. Some of the methods used may be more detrimental to = the=20 environment than not, a may even add to the potential hazards of fire, = flood,=20 and landslide. An example is found in the aerial seeding of rye grass in = burned=20 watersheds.=20

The aerial seeding of watersheds, stripped of vegetation by fire, for = post=20 fire erosion control is a common practice in California and throughout = the west.=20 However, the impacts of this practice are increasingly in question. It = has been=20 suggested that the aerial seeding of non-native rye grasses may in fact = create=20 large heavy, and unstable, mats of vegetation on geologically unstable = slopes=20 prone to sliding even under natural conditions. Such unstable formations = combined with hydrophobic soil conditions could lead to increased = surface=20 erosion or landsliding. Furthermore, the successful establishment of a = rye cover=20 at a burn site may lead to an increased volume of fine dead fuels, and = increase=20 the chance of an earlier burn cycle (Barro & Conard 1987).=20

It has also been suggested that the establishment of rye grass on the = slopes=20 of watersheds dominated by chaparral may result in the inability of = native fire=20 annuals to germinate following a fire. These annuals are an important = step in=20 the post fire recovery cycle, and these species are very well adapted to = providing erosion control in post fire environments. If this were the = case a=20 major break in the recovery cycle could occur and may have a serious = impact on=20 the ability of the chaparral community to recover and survive. As these=20 chaparral communities provide an important source of wildlife habitat, = as well=20 as a valuable service in terms of erosion control, the continued = practice of=20 aerial seeding should be further investigated for its overall = effectiveness.=20

REFERENCES

Barbour, M.G., Burk, J.H., and Pitts, W.D. (1980), Terrestrial = Plant=20 Ecology, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Menlo Park, = California.=20

Barker, E.S. (1971), An Island Called California, University = of=20 California Press, Berkeley, California.=20

Barro, S.C., and Conard, S.G. (1987), Use of Ryegrass Seeding as = an=20 Emergency Revegetation Measure in Chaparral Ecosystems, Pacific = Southwest=20 Research Station, Riverside, California.=20

Barro, S.C., and Conard, S.G. (1990), Fire Effects on California=20 Chaparral, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Riverside, = California.=20

Burcham, L.T. (1987), Fire and Chaparral Before European = Settlement,=20 California Division of Forestry.=20

Carter, G.M., Bean, D.L., and Weissler, R.E. (1994), Report on the = Old=20 Topanga Incident, RAND Corporation, County of Los Angeles Fire = Department,=20 Los Angeles, California=20

County of Los Angeles Fire Department, CLAFD (1994), Official = Report Old=20 Topanga Incident, Los Angeles, California.=20

Davis, J.P. (1977), Southern California Reservoir Sedimentation, = Fall=20 Meeting & Exhibits, American Society of Civil Engineers, San = Francisco,=20 California.=20

DeBano, L.F. (1987), Chaparral Soils, Pacific Southwest Forest = and=20 Range Experimental Station.=20

Delzani, R.J. & Minnich, R.A. (1991), Suppression Fire = Behavior and=20 Fire Magnitudes in California Chaparral at the Urban Wildland = Interface,=20 University of California, Riverside, California.=20

FEMA-OES (1994), Office of Emergency Services, October 25 - = November 10,=20 1993, Office of Emergency Services, Sacramento, California.=20

Florsheim, J.L., Keller, E.A., & Best, D.W. (1991), Fluvial = Sediment=20 Transport in Response to Moderate Storm Flows Following Chaparral = Wildfire,=20 Southern California; Geologic Society of America Bulletin, v. 103, pg. = 504-511.=20

Gray, C.H. (1985), Landslide Hazards in California, Living in the=20 Chaparral of Southern California; Proceedings of the Conference & = Public=20 Workshop, The National Foundation for Environmental Safety & = National=20 Park Service.=20

Hanes, T.L. (1987), The Vegetation Called Chaparral, = Department of=20 Biological Science, California State University, Fulerton.=20

McPhee, J. (1989), The Control of Nature, The Noonday Press, = Farrar,=20 Straus and Giroux, New York.=20

Minnich, R.A. (1983), Fire Mosaics in Southern California and = Northern=20 Baja California, Science v. 219, pg. 1287-1294.=20

National Fire Protection Association, NFPA, (1992), The = Oakland/Berkeley=20 Hills Fire, NFPA, Quincy, MA.=20

Pavlik, B.M., Muick, P.C., Johnson, S.G., and Popper, M. (1991), = Oaks of=20 California, Cachuma Press, Inc., Los Olivos, California.=20

Planning Magazine (June 1995), Burn, California, Burn. William = Fulton,=20 American Planning Association.=20

Pyne, S.J. (1982), Fire in America: A Cultural History of Wildland = and=20 Urban Fire, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.=20

Radtke, K.W.H. (1983), Living More Safely in the Chaparral-Urban=20 Interface, United States Department of Agriculture, Pacific = Southwest Forest=20 and Range Experimental Station.=20

Rice, R.M. (1987), The Hydrology of Chaparral Watersheds, = Pacific=20 Southwest Forest and Range Experimental Station.=20

U.S. Department of the Interior (1995), Federal Wildland Fire = Management=20 Policy & Program Review, Bureau of Land Management's National = Office of=20 Fire and Aviation, Washington, District of Columbia.=20

Wells, W.G. (1987), The Effects of Fire on the Generation of = Debris Flows=20 in Southern California, Geologic Society of America Reviews in = Engineering.

Jack Aibsworth works at the California Coastal Commission, South = Central=20 District, 89 South California Street, Suite 200, Ventura, California = 93001,=20 (805) 585-1800.=20

Return to California Coastal Commission Publications List=20

Return to California Coastal = Commission Home=20 Page

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